The purpose of conducting an investigation of colours in sport was to determine how sporting organisations, both locally and internationally select their club colours and what psychological impact these colours can have on supporters. A primary objective of the research is to assist teams in determining what the best colour combination would be for their club in order to manufacture the desired result from their supporters. Little information exists with regards to the meaning of certain colours and the psychological impact they may have on the individual within the sporting context. By investigating the meaning of colours, in conjunction with how they are selected and used in sport, it is proposed that sporting managers can determine whether their colours are reflective of the culture and desired image of the team.

"Knowledge is power, in colour as elsewhere." (Pavey, 1980, p.138)

Few recognise the ability of colour to impact on our emotions, possessing the power to stimulate or to tranquillise, to excite or depress, or to provoke and antagonise (Pavey, 1980, p.132; Fontana, 1993, p.66).

Given that colour has an effect on the emotional wellbeing of an individual (Pavey, 1980, p.155), psychologists believe that careful selection and management of colour can improve the response or help to achieve the desired objective.

In today’s competitive business environment organisations are seeking any advantage that will see them secure their position within the market, this is particularly relevant in sport. Moving towards the new millennium sporting teams are faced with a changing environment where they are likely to experience periods of success followed by times of uncertainties where mergers and relocation are a common reality. The key to survival rests with the ability to generate revenue and to ensure that the current supporter base remain loyal while at the same time developing strategies to lure potential supporters.

The overall appearance of a team is crucial with their colours representing the ultimate symbol of their culture. Those teams that were established in the 1800’s are fortunate enough to rely on a long line of tradition to maintain and attract supporters. However, new teams lack player history and past success, and must rely in part on their visual attractiveness to lure potential supporters. This is particularly relevant when the sport is played internationally as the ability to extend you supporter base is not restricted to your home country.

No rules exist for developing team colours. Australian teams often look to American sport as inspiration, while other sporting organisations rely on the culture of their home state to dictate their colours. Whether to choose one of these methods or another process, the objective remains the same - generate revenue for their team.

The symbolic significance of a teams colours may be very different from the psychological effect (Fabri, 1967, p.65). Teams should consider the meaning of their colours in conjunction with what they would like them to represent in order to maximise impact on the human psyche. For example, a colour that may be visually appealing may in fact provoke a tranquil emotion over the individual. In addition, colours vary according to surroundings, especially colours next to each other (Fabri, 1967, p.66). Therefore, consideration to the overall effect as opposed to a single factor can only be an investment.

The selection of colours for symbolic reasons dates back to a period of time before Christ. One of the earliest uses of colour was in the ‘Ziggurat’ of Ur, built between 2300BC and 2180BC in the Tigris Euphrates Valley. This monument employed the use of colour to illustrate four main stories. The first story was black symbolising the underworld, the second was red representing earth, the third story was a blue shrine that symbolized heaven and the fourth story was yellow symbolizing the sun (Fabri, 1967, p.62). As evident by the use of these colours elsewhere during this period, colours were derived from associations with in the natural world.

Han emperors (206BC- AD200) selected the colour of their ritual robes according to aspects of nature to which their prayers were addressed (Fontana, 1993, p.52). For example, the emperors wore white when petitioning the moon and red when appealing to the sun. This knowledge has evolved to a position whereby it is recognised that colours are not used purely for symbolic purposes, however, they can influence the psyche directly and profoundly. This is evident with the use of colour in modern psychiatry to treat mental disorders (Fontana, 1993, p52). Colours are unlikely to have one rigid meaning, they may possess a number of connotations or implied meanings that may be considered consciously or unconsciously (Fabri, 1967, p.63). Acknowledging the numerous meanings of colours is particularly relevant in sport where evoking emotion from players and supporters is vital.

Colours have various meanings for different cultures. To some, a colour may represent a direct association with the underworld, to others, the same colour can symbolise spiritual enlightenment. By analysing how colours have evolved throughout history, we can begin to determine whether certain colours can be more appropriately utilised in sport than others.

"Red is the colour of magic in every country, and has been so since the earliest of times." (Pavy, 1980, p186).

During the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, red was considered the English equivalent for gold and therefore became the colour for aristocracy. (Pavy, 1980, p.186). When Henry the 2nd declared Fox hunting a royal sport, red was the colour which represented the social standing of those who participated. The association of red with the greatest respect and aura of grandeur was also adopted in theatrical circles where the standard phrase became "roll out the red carpet". However those that choose to utilise the colour red, should take note that it is not always associated with aristocracy, it can signify many different meanings for different cultures.

Classical American Indians identified red with ambition, heroism and the striving for power (Crozier, 1994, p.150). Hence the colour red has become synonymous with sporting organisations that adopt the American Indian symbolism. For example, the Cleveland Indians, Washington Redskins and the Atlanta Braves all feature red as a primary colour.

Red is also synonymous with the Asian culture who utilise this colour significantly within their sporting leagues. The ultimate reason for this is its association with good luck and prosperity (Fontana, 1993, p.66). It is common practice to present individuals with a gold coin in a red envelope on Chinese New Year to signify luck and well being. In Hebrew tradition the first man was named Adam, which means red and alive. (Brusatin, 1991, p.23) This correlates with the Slavic culture where the colour red denotes living (Brusatin, 1991, p.23). The positive connotations continue with the Persian and Turkish people using red to symbolise joy and happiness as a principle colour in their carpets (Pavey, 1980, p.186).

Although all of these cultures associate red with birth, life, joy and good living, westerners have developed their beliefs based on American Indian ideals. Their primary association with red is blood, rage, passion and courage (Healey, 1982, p.48; Brusatin, 1991, p.121; Pavey, 1980, p.186).

Research indicates that exposure to large quantities of red prompts the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream, quickens the heart rate and engenders a sense of excitement. (Healey, 1982, p.48; Crozier, 1994, p.150; Bustanoby, 1947, p.101). It is recognised as the colour of masculinity and activity, and imposes on those that are bold enough to wear it, suggestive confidence. These emotions are absorbed by supporters of successful teams who use red as their primary colour, displaying the characteristics and emotions that this colour induces. For example the Liverpool football team supporters, whose club colours are red and white, are synonymous with being one of the most vocal, passionate and courageous followers in the English Premier League.

The connotations of courage and passion all stem from the idea that red is the colour of war. (Fontana,1993, p.66). The blood coloured banners quite often seen in the hands of Liverpool supporters, symbolise a warning that upheaval and strife will result from all opposition to their plans of victory (Pavey, 1980, p.192).

A variation on red is pink. The Chinese see pink as a symbol of approaching success, due to its association with the colour of sunrise (Fontana, 1993, p.52). However, this in Western society signifies gentle, blissful and extreme pleasure-giving emotions (Healey, 1982, p.48), all of which are traditionally feminine qualities. Therefore, no sporting team, female or male, have employed this colour as it would likely result in a reduced male supporter base due to the impression that the team and it’s supporters, are "soft."

"Orange has always suffered something of an identity crisis. It has spent history playing second fiddle to red and occasionally gold." (Pavey, 1980, p.194).

The word orange, was not used frequently until the tenth or eleventh centuries and was often associated with fruit. It was not until the seventeenth century that orange was able to establish its self from such associations (Pavey, 1980, p.194). Today, orange signifies hope, vitality, energy and cheer (Pavey, 1980, p.194; Bustanoby, 1947, p.101).

Although arguably it is a stimulating colour, very few sporting teams use it. This may be attributed to the fact that orange was traditionally the colour assigned to those of an inferior position (Pavey, 1980, p.194). Therefore orange is best used as a secondary colour, as it is effective when combined with other colours to attract attention and exhibit a force of life (Brusatin, 1991, p.21). However, if used as a primary colour it becomes extroverted and thus overbearing.

Brown, a darkened orange has appealing associations with food, like coffee and chocolate. However, others associate it with melancholy, gloom and dull emotions (Pavey, 1980, p.194). Brown is more appealing to adults than children, who psychologically link it with comfort and security while children associate brown with sadness (Pavey, 1980, p.194).

"Yellow’s ease of perception has made it a favourite amongst advertisers and packagers." (Pavey, 1980, p.200).

During the tenth century, the Sung Dynasty reserved the colour yellow exclusively for the Emperor as an Imperial colour (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Fontana, 1993, p.67), while Buddhist monks wore yellow as a colour of humility (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Fontana, 1993, p.67).

Although yellow represented many positive aspects of the human character, in ancient times it is one of the only colours that induces directly contrasting emotions. Artists in medieval times portrayed Judas Iscariot in yellow to illustrate his deceit and betrayal of Jesus. (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Bustanoby, 1947, p.101). While a yellow flag on a ship during this period signified contagious disease. Many hospitals ensure that rooms are not painted yellow, as patients claim that it makes them feel ill (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Fabri, 1967, p.63).

A common connotation of yellow, is betrayal and faithlessness (Fontana, 1993, p.67). This was illustrated when the Nazi’s made all Jews wear yellow armbands as a reflection of their inferiority.

In the western world, true yellow is psychologically the happiest colour (Healey, 1982, p.46), as it possesses the highest visibility and therefore radiates warmth, inspiration and happiness. (Pavey, 1980, p.200; Bustanoby, 1947, p.101; Crozier, 1994, p.150). Many people consider yellow a colour of wisdom, representing intellect. This is due to its association with the sun which many ancient cultures worshipped as a ruler. (Fabri, 1967, p.63; Pavey, 1980, p.200). Research indicates that the eye is most sensitive to yellow light and for this reason, it can be difficult to handle. (Healey, 1982, p.46). However, due to it’s high visibility, many sports teams utilise this colour, such as the Jordan Formula 1. Racing Team, where visibility is a crucial factor to safety and attention.

Although yellow can represent cowardice its high visibility outweighs negative associations and it becomes extremely flexible when combined with other colours. For example purple and yellow representing the LA Lakers (NBA), black and yellow of the Richmond Tigers (AFL), and yellow and blue of the St. Louis Rams (NFL).

Gold is closely related to yellow, as they both represent the sun. Ancient Greeks believed that it was a symbol of reason and immortality as illustrated when Jason found the golden fleece (Fontana, 1993, p.66). "It was the colour of divinity, of martyrs, of priesthood, of the royal majesty of Christ." (Pavey, 1980, p.204). Hindu’s used gold as a symbol of truth and even today it is associated with sacred and divine principles (Fontana, p.66; Pavey, 1980, p.200). For many sporting teams, gold is difficult to reproduce on their apparel and therefore, many sides opt for a deep yellow to represent the quality, luxury and attractiveness that gold signifies.

Green puts things into perspective: ... "it was here before man, and it is ever ready to reclaim it’s own." (Pavey, 1980, p.206). It is the colours of spring and the renewal of life. (Fabri, 1967, p.63; Fontana, 1993, p.67; Pavey, 1980, p.206).

Green was worn by outlaw Robin Hood and was admired for its ability to camouflage man with nature (Pavey, 1980, p.206). It was an ancient observation that "emerald delights the eye without fatiguing it and it was later discovered that green light focuses almost exactly on the retina." (Healey, 1982, p.44). Therefore, green brings on a tranquil and soothing state of mind that refreshes, relaxes and heals. (Bustanoby, 1947, p.102; Pavey, 1980, p.206). Hence the term "The Green Room" which calms guests prior to a performance in theatre and television studios. This term has also been adopted in the sport of surfing to denote a state of ultimate tranquillity and release from the limitations of existence for the soul.

Psychologically green is a cool and fresh colour that helps to overcome discomforts of high temperatures (Bustanoby, 1947, p.102). However, green can also represent poison, envy, and jealously (Bustanoby, 1947, p.102; Pavey, 1980, p.206; Fontana, 1993, p.67; Fabri, 1967, p.63). Many countries currencies are coloured green to represent security and stability. However, ironically both money and green promote envy and jealousy.

Children’s appetite for the colour green is due to its associations with slime, creepiness and green men in spaceships (Pavey, 1980, p.206). Teams such as the Canberra Raiders (NRL), Boston Celtics (NBA), and Green Bay Packers (NFL) use green as a primary colour in their uniforms. It can be argued that green is an attractive colour to use within sports, as few teams use it as their primary colour, and when employed successfully it reaps attention.

"That which exists best in the world... the colour of all colours, the bluest of all blues." - Picasso (Pavey, 1980, p.212).

Blue has a historic and symbolic association with royalty. Yet it remains the peoples colour (Pavey, 1980, p.212), and for this reason its popularity in sports is widespread. Ancient Parisians entrusted blue to ward off the evil eye. Greeks and Romans used blue to represent their respective gods, Zeus and Jupiter. (Pavey, 1980, p.212). Perhaps one of the most significant aspects of this colour is its spiritual connection; it is a symbol of truth, peace, faith and compassion, (Fontana, 1993, p.66; Crozier, 1994, p.150; Bustanoby, 1947, p.102; Pavey, 1980, p.170-186).

The colour of Royal Blue promotes a sense of stability and hence the name "blue chip," meaning a safe investment. (Pavey, 1980, p.172-212). Due to its connections with royalty blue perpetuates the ideal of "the best" which was symbolised by the term "blue ribbon" since 1348. (Pavey, 1980, p.212). Blue is synonymous with manual industrial workers, who’s hard work and commitment coined the phrase "blue collar workers."

Although it is a pleasant and soothing colour, it can also be cold and depressing (Bustonoby, 1947, p.101, Pavey, 1980, p.212). The Chinese use the image of a blue faced individual in their paintings, to convey a fierce mood. (Pavey, 1980, p.212). While the Greeks believed deep blue was an indication of death (Brusatin, 1991, p.270). Blue agrees so well with other colours that it functions as one of the most flexible of all primary colours, yet it retains it’s own identity with ease (Healey, 1982, p.42).

Many sporting teams that utilise blue as their main colour, are considered traditionalist and often convey the belief that they are royalty with in their sport. Carlton Football Club (AFL), Williams Formula 1 Racing Team and the Dallas Cowboys (NFL) all project an image of stability, success and leadership within their sport.

"When opposites attract, their union may be anything from subtle to stormy. The red and blue of which violet and purple are composed are physically, emotionally and symbolically poles apart." (Pavey, 1980, p.218).

Purple evokes a heavenly image of incomparable richness and was historically more precious than silver. (Pavey, 1980, p.218). Due to the great expense occurred in manufacturing purple, it was quite often reserved for royalty alone and became the Imperial colour of Rome (Bustanoby, 1947, p.102; Pavey, 1980, p.118; Fabri, 1967, p.63). It’s representation of royalty in Roman times, has lead to its modern day portrayal of uncontrollable power of rank and authority. "It was not exclusively the colour of power but also the colour of power corrupted." (Pavey, 1980, p.218). Sacrifice and penance were common associations with the colour purple in ancient times (Pavey, 1980, p.218; Bustanoby, 1947, p.102).

In today’s sporting environment, purple is prevalent and represents a newly found popularity. Not only is it recognised as a fashionable colour, but also it denotes the power of the team’s spirit. Sydney Kings (NBL), LA Lakers (NBA), Melbourne Storm (NRL), Utah Jazz (NBA), Minnesota Vikings (NFL), Fiorentina (Italian Soccer) and the Fremantle Dockers (AFL) are just some clubs who share an association with the colour purple.

"What better symbol could there be for bravado in the face of death than a 200 mph black racing car." (Pavey, 1980, p.171).

Black is a symbol of death, sorrow and the underworld (Fontana, 1993, p.67; Crozier, 1994, p.153, Fabri, 1967, p.63). Such an association with death and evil has lead many Africans to only wear bright colours. (Pavey, 1980, p.178). However, other cultures, such as the Egyptians believe black is the colour of rebirth and resurrection (Fontana, 1993, p.67).

Although it is often considered the colour of mourning and desolation, in certain circumstances it can be a colour of sophistication and elegance (Fabri, 1967, p.65). Many sporting teams have utilised black as a function of power, strength, confidence and respectability. (Pavey, 1980, p.158-178). For supporters around the world, this colour remains one of the most popular with some individuals purchasing merchandise purely for fashion purposes without any knowledge or understanding of the team.

Teams such as the Oakland Raiders (NFL), Juventus (Italian soccer) and Orlando Magic (NBA) have set a precedent not only in their sport, but also in fashion circles. Therefore all emerging teams must consider the "wearability" of their colours not only on the field, but also on the streets.

"Grey is colourless, figuratively as well as literally." (Fabri, 1967, p.63).

As a shade of black, it lacks distinction and therefore is rarely used as a primary team colour. Furthermore, research indicates that it provokes no strong emotions, remaining quiet and reserved in nature (Pavey, 1980, p.140).

In such an industry as sport, where teams play on emotion, grey’s characteristics would be unsuitable. However, it does possess the ability to stimulate reflection and imagination, therefore suggesting an aura of intelligence and wisdom (Pavey, 1980, p.140-178).

"White’s reputation is something of a grey area," (Pavey, 1980, p.178).

"In the far east it is a colour of mourning," (Fontana, 1993, p.67; Fabri, 1967, p.63; Crozier, 1994, p.153). However, the Tibetans believe white is the colour of Mount Meru, which is the "mountain at the centre of the world," and embodies the assent to enlightenment (Fontana, 1993, p.67).

Research indicates that white is primarily the colour of purity and is a function of smoothness (Crozier, 1994, p.153; Gage, 1995, p.12; Fabri, 1967, p.63; Fontana, 1993, p.67). However its use in sport should be carefully considered as traditionally, a white flag was a representation of surrender or truth, and to send a white feather to an enemy branded them cowardice in nature (Fabri, 1967, p.63; Pavey, 1980, p.178). Ironically umpires in many leagues wear all white uniforms with many supporters believing that this colour is reflective of their role. However all umpires would disagree with this, and believe the colour is more reflective of respectability and righteousness (Pavey 1980, p.158; Crozier, 1994, p.153). White tennis attire has been compulsory at Wimbledon since 1903 in order to mark the tradition and respect for the tournament. Although in the 1970’s Jimmy Conners was permitted stripes of colours on his sleeves, the rule has remained relatively consistent. (Pavey, 1980, p.178). Tradition in the sport of cricket and lawn bowls is also reflected in the colour of white.

White is particularly prevalent within Baseball, where the image of players with dirt stained white uniforms is somewhat of an icon in the sport. However the use of white as a primary colour is quite unusual in sport, as it lacks high visibility in comparison to the previous colours mentioned. Sydney Swans (AFL), Stuart Racing Formula 1 Team, Tottenham Hotspur (English soccer) and Real Madrid (Spanish soccer) have all utilised the colour white quite successfully with merchandise. Traditionally in an Australian context white has come to symbolise the colour of the visiting team. In the AFL for instance the "away" team is required to wear white shorts. This contrasts with the US experience where the colour white represents the home team. Members of the National Hockey League and Major League Baseball wear predominantly white uniforms at home and coloured uniforms in road games.

Some consider Australian Rules Football (AFL) a religion, not a sport. The game has grown in popularity since its expansion from a Victorian based league (VFL) to an all Australian sport. The league currently consists of 10 Victorian based teams and 6 interstate sides who have all enjoyed varying degrees of success. With spectator attendance increasing every year, other Australian sporting leagues have struggled to understand the passion that the sport induces in its supporters. Some attribute this to the pace of the game, others suggest it is the aerial acrobatics of the players. However the most likely reason is the overall package that Aussie Rules presents, including its visual attractiveness.

With the introduction of many interstate teams, the game has been able to flourish in the area of merchandise and colours. Such states as Western Australia and South Australia must seek to differentiate themselves by selecting team colours that will not only attract supporters away from the second AFL club in that state, but also potential supporters around Australia.

As the league was established in Victoria during the 1800’s teams in this state did not recognise the important impact colours could have on people. North Melbourne Football Club was established in the 1860’s, and due to this fact little information exists as to how their colours of blue and white were selected. The most probable theory proposed by the club suggests that it’s founder "Tiger" Gardener and the Gardener family, were linked with Saint Mary’s Anglican Church in North Melbourne. The colours associated with Saint Mary’s are blue and white.

As their colours were most likely selected based on association rather than stimulation, the club does not consider them important to the marketability of North Melbourne Football Club both locally and Australia wide. Although recognising that they are neither an advantage nor disadvantage, the club attributes their popularity to the following factors.

* Marketability of the team mascot - "kangaroo"

* The team’s success in the 1990’s

* The work of the clubs staff in regards to functions, sponsorship and special events.

North Melbourne 1998 membership was 19,055 and they expected merchandise sales in the order of $250,000. As one of Victoria’s most successful on-field clubs, North Melbourne have chosen to focus their existence on the symbolism of what they have achieved and represent, as opposed to the impact of their colours. Ironically, blue and white are the colours of commitment, victory, respect and righteousness which is the exact association the club is seeking to project.

One of the most popular Victorian based AFL clubs is Essendon. However once again research has failed to identify the exact source of their red and black colours. The club itself believes there is a strong link between Essendon Rowing Club, St Patricks Cathedral and Xavier College, all of which feature the colours. Fortunately enough for Essendon Football Club, red and black are the most powerful and provoking in the colour spectrum.

A Victorian football club that shares a similar colour scheme to Essendon, is St Kilda. Although the club has not been able to identify how their team colours of red, black and white came to be in existence they consider them important to the marketability of the football club. This is due to the fact that they are strong, visual colours that demand attention from supporters. The club considers other sports, sponsors and current trends when deciding on how to merge these three colours together to best represent St Kilda Football Club. This has been a successful exercise with merchandise proving extremely popular and membership figures for 1998 increasing to a record 21,600.

From information provided by such clubs as North Melbourne, Essendon and St Kilda, the conclusion may be drawn that most Victorian based teams do not understand the potential that their colours possess in helping them to achieve their desired image. However in their defence, some of these clubs have been in existence since the mid-1800s where colours were merely chosen for their associations with existing institutions. Today’s emerging AFL clubs have the luxury of manipulating colours to achieve the desired response that pioneering clubs never had the opportunity too.

The AFL has standard colours that may be used by teams via registered PMS colours. These provide the selected team colours with a coded number that enables licensees to identify which threads will form a new team’s guernsey colours via the use of these codes. The AFL must approve all team colours or changes to these colours, as they are the licensed holder of all AFL merchandise rights. Any changes must be made at least one year before they are to be implemented. However the AFL does not impose any sanctions on what colours are to be used by participating teams in the competition. For example Geelong, Carlton and North Melbourne Football Club all share varying shades of blue and white.

The Fremantle Dockers developed their team colours with the dual assistance of an outside organisation called Advertising Agency 303 and a design company called Turner Design. The Football Club considers their team colours very important to the marketability of their club. They feel it is important that their colours are both popular and eye catching, as supporters need to be comfortable when wearing the Dockers colours otherwise the product will not sell. Therefore the club conducted an in depth analysis on other sports and current market trends when developing their team colours. The reason for such an exercise was the belief that other sporting teams have "taught" supporters to wear certain colours. Hence some supporters have become comfortable with specific colours prior to their introduction into emerging clubs colour schemes.

Fremantle Football Club broke tradition somewhat and finalised their team colours across four spectrums involving purple, red, green, and white. Sporting teams have historically chosen a two or three colour scheme. Certain reasons were highly influential on this decision. The most significant of these was that they where different to the colours of any other clubs within the AFL, as they are the first team to use purple and green in their colour scheme. The club also made this selection based on what these colours represent to the Fremantle region. For example red, white and green are traditionally the colours of the Italian community, whose presence is strong in the Fremantle area. Furthermore, red and green typically illustrate their connection with the Maritime culture. This is further substantiated with the selection of the team’s name of the "Dockers." Possibly the most profound factor in determining Fremantle’s club colours, is the fact that purple is the current number one selling colour in American sports and it has a strong association with religion, which in turn appeals to the Catholic denomination of the city.

The club did not consider the opinions of sponsors when developing their team colours as they may change from year to year, and therefore may not generate long-term associations within the supporter’s minds. The Dockers current 1998 membership figure stood at 21,000 and the club attributes such popularity to the following factors.

* They are a new club.

* New colours within the AFL.

* Strong ethnic colours and local following within the Fremantle area

* The strong football following and tradition within Fremantle.

Therefore, it is evident that selection of colours based on current market trends, other sports and the demographics of supporters, can be instrumental in how a new team is received by the public.

Port Adelaide Football Club also utilised a similar approach to Fremantle when selecting their team colours. When invited into the league, the AFL sent Port Adelaide a brief, stating that their new colours were to be innovative and appealing to youth. It was always the club’s intention to select colours that would best represent the tradition of Port Adelaide football while also recognising its emergence into a new era of sport.

Previous to the club being known as the Port Adelaide Power, they had enjoyed a highly successful history in the local football competition as the Port Adelaide Magpies. However once they had gained successful entry into the AFL, they were required to alter both their name and colours. This was due to the fact that a Victorian based club already existed, known as the Collingwood Magpies with whom they shared the colours of black and white.

The club committed to the colours black, white, silver and teal, following the Dockers lead of using four colours. Port Adelaide had conducted research into what colours would appeal most to the youth of Australia. Based on the experience of numerous American sporting organisations, teal was selected. This colour had been successfully marketed in sports internationally, and was different to any other team colours in Australia. However most importantly it served the purpose of possessing a close assimilation to the ocean, with which Port Adelaide is associated. Black and white colours were chosen in recognition of the club’s long history as the magpies, and in an effort to compensate those supporters who had become attached to these colours. While silver is a close derivative of black and white, and therefore was considered an ideal complement to the other colours.

Memberships for 1998 stood at 11,974 and merchandise sales were averaging $3,200 per day early in the season. Port Power attributes their success to very loyal and parochial supporters, and believe their merchandise is extremely marketable.

The AFL competition has utilised many colours and with the introduction of new interstate clubs, such colours as green, purple, silver and teal, have been used as a differentiating factor. However with the possibility of a second team in Sydney and a new team in Tasmania, the use of different colours could well be the difference between the initial appeal of the team and it’s continued popularity.

Australian Rugby League (NRL) has experienced significant conflict both on and off the field in the past three years. With the division of the league into two opposing competitions, many questioned whether the sport would ever recover in the supporters’ minds. However, with the return of all participating teams to one NRL competition, the game is once again beginning to show promise.

For the league to grow into a possible position worthy of challenging the AFL’s popularity, they would need to penetrate markets historically dominated by Aussie Rules, such as Victoria. With this in mind, 1998 welcomed the introduction of a Rugby League team in Victoria. Melbourne Storm faced an uphill battle of attracting attention towards a sport that very few within the region had followed.

The Melbourne Storm colours were developed in consultation with a number of leading fashion houses. Their primary objective was to select colours that would appear dynamic on the field and fashionable off the field for supporters. Both Melbourne Storm management and the fashion houses, made a conscious effort to link their colours with Victorian’s firstly, and secondly select colours that would appeal to the larger Australian market. To achieve this, knowledge of fashion and trends in society were necessary.

The design team selected purple, navy blue and gold to represent this new Victorian team. Melbourne Storm believe their colours are important to the success of their club in attracting a greater supporter base. As their colours are different from any other NRL or AFL team, they act to distinguish the club from surrounding competitors.

The colours were primarily selected to reflect the tradition of Victorian football jumpers, in relation to the "V" design and navy blue base. Melbourne Storm merchandise has proven extremely successful with sales greater than any other NRL club in 1988. While some of this is attributable to the newness of the team, the range of merchandise available was also very limited due to manufacturers having little time to produce goods as a result of the merging of the leagues and uncertainty at the beginning of the season.

With the combination of purple, signifying authority and power, blue emulating stability and success, and finally gold representing immortality, and truth. Melbourne Storm’s selection of these colours suggests a strong foundation for future marketability and presentation of the team.

The National Football League (NFL) has enjoyed explosive success within the United States and all over the world.

Its popularity in countries like Australia, can be attributed partly to the extensive hype and merchandising of the sport, from the United States. Minimal coverage has not provided the majority of Australian’s with the opportunity to experience the spirit of the game, therefore many consider the sport more fashionable to wear than to consistently follow.

Due to the number of teams participating in the NFL (thirty-one), more than one club is permitted to have similar colour schedules. For example the Oakland Raiders and Pittsburgh Steelers both have black as their prominent colour. However all team colours and any changes to those colours must be approved by the NFL. Team colours are important to the marketability of the sport locally and in particular globally. The Australian representative arm the NFL, believes apparel sales are often driven by fashion. It is not unusual for an individual in Australia to be inclined to purchase an Oakland Raiders jacket, merely based on the fact that it is fashionable to wear or because of the Americana concept. However the purchaser may have no knowledge of a single member of the Raiders team. With current merchandise sales world wide for the NFL in the vicinity of $3.5 billion dollars, it becomes obvious that the game’s success has more to do with image than just pure sport.

One of the most popular teams within the NFL are the Dallas Cowboys. This team has enjoyed significant success on-field and produced many marketable players. On a global scale, the Cowboys are one of five teams that rate highly in merchandise sales and popularity.. These are the Dallas Cowboys, Oakland Raiders, San Fransisco 49ers, Miami Dolphins and the Green Bay Packers. All of these teams have experienced varying degrees of success in recent years, but most interestingly possess some of the most attractive colours in the league.

As discussed, the blue and silver Dallas Cowboys embody commitment and righteousness, while the green and yellow Green Bay Packers represent stability and inspiration. However the most popular selling merchandise in NFL history belongs to the Oakland Raiders who are black, white and silver. For many supporters of sport, the use of black is favourable when purchasing merchandise. Representing power, it is the ultimate in wearability and symbolism in sport. Like black, red is also popular for consumers of merchandise. Being the primary colour of the San Fransisco 49ers, it represents ideals that are crucial to sport, such as confidence, adrenalin, heroism, passion and rage. Thus, it is not difficult to see why sporting fans are attracted to this colour. Teal, the dominate colour of the Miami Dolphins, is also visually attractive. When combined with white and orange, they produce a refreshing cool effect, that is particularly appealing to women.

English Football is arguably the most colourful of all European Soccer Leagues. Die hard fans, who would quite possibly sell their mothers for an FA Cup ticket are plentiful. The Premier League has taken the sport to a level of glamour and status unseen in most leagues around the world. With many clubs now listed on the stock exchange, English Football’s fanatical appeal has spread beyond its boundaries to countries, like Australia, where supporter groups have been established.

The most successful team both on and off the field, remains Manchester United. The club’s popularity is a characteristic envied by all sporting teams around the world. Some attribute this success to the style and panache with which they play, while others suggest that their fan base extends from the sentiments of the Munich air disaster. However most believe it is the stars that play for the club, like David Beckham. Whatever the reason, such popularity has lead to intense demand for Manchester United merchandise and generates a near frenzy when a new club uniform is released.

The club has experienced a long and traditionally conservative history in relation to the first choice of colours utilised by the team. There is however, a great deal of scope to incorporate a variety of colours for use in the club’s second and third choice guernsey’s, called kits.

Umbro International are contracted to manufacture these kits when required. Both Manchester United and Umbro provide input as to the direction of colours, however final approval is granted by management at the club.

In the past, the league had placed regulations on manufacturers and team with respect to not being able to use navy blue and black as base shades. The reason being that these kits would clash with those of the referees. To overcome this Umbro developed colorful referee kits that opened the door for teams wishing to use the darker (and popular) base shades.

Team colours are largely selected with respect to tradition. Therefore a number of clubs are permitted to utilise the same base colours. For example, red and white are employed by Manchester United, Arsenal, Sunderland, Southampton, Liverpool and others. However colours selected for second and third choice kits may encompass a vast array of colours, all of which are primarily market driven and dependent upon a particular season.

Within the six years Umbro has been manufacturing Manchester United kits, approximately thirteen designs have been produced. Umbro considers themselves a part of the fashion industry, and therefore utilise a fashion process of thought. This means that designs only have a two year life cycle. Consumers have now become accustomed to this time frame and invariably, the excitement that leads up to the launch of a new kit is overwhelming. Excluding the current home kit, the most successful team uniform for Manchester United remains the all black design introduced in season 1993/94.

Such a result, verifies the notion that sporting consumers are attracted to the colour black.

The National Basketball League in Australia has often played second fiddle to other sports, like the AFL. In an effort to overcome this fact, managers of the league decided to alter the commencing date of the season, to coincide with the summer period.

As part of the season shift process, the NBL and participating clubs undertook an extensive analysis on their logos and colours. New images were released as part of the introduction to the 1998/99 season and the development of this new visual identity package involved Australian and International design specialists.

With increased media coverage expected, the NBL made a significant effort to focus their efforts on the co-ordination of club colours in logos and uniforms. The NBL considers colours very important to the marketing mix of basketball. The main reason for this is that they depict visually the level of vibrancy in the sport, and hence are influential in the level of appeal the sport portrays to consumers. Even without the change to a summer season, the NBL stated that they still would have undertaken a visual identity project, as it is their belief that the league’s logos and colours were not at a level comparable to those of competitors in the entertainment and merchandising areas.

The league approves all team colours and any changes made to those colours. The colours adopted by each team must be different in order to provide a point of visual differentiation, and according to NBL rules, each team is required to have a dark colour based home uniform and a light colour based away uniform.

The following three areas are considered when developing team colours. Firstly, representation of the geographical area. For example, the Adelaide 36ers utilise the colours red, blue and yellow to represent South Australia, while Townsville also adopt colours which are representative of the topography of their region. Secondly, merchandising potential, and thirdly, tradition. Sponsors also require careful consideration. However, it is important that team colours are developed as independently as possible, as sponsors change.

For the NBL, no simple answer to the question of what the most effective colour is, exists. Personality and performance of the team will have an effect, as will the combination of colours selected.

Formula One Motor Racing is a sport that encompasses all the qualities most desired by sporting fans. Speed, danger, noise, personalities and glamour are just some of these elements that continue to draw spectators to each race held in some of the most beautiful countries across the world.

This sport is like no other in developing team colours where sponsors become the determining factor. The formula One administration also does not impose any sanctions on the amount of times a colour can be used by a number of participating teams. For this reason, it is not unusual to see various teams with the same colour scheme. For example, both Williams and Ferrari utilise the colour red as a primary base.

With many countries banning tobacco sponsorship of Formula One races, the colour can act as a mechanism for identification purposes. Without such names as Winfield or Marlboro displayed on the cars, fans can still identify each team via use of their colours. This is particularly relevant with the high speeds involved in the sport.

The most popular Formula One racing team globally, continues to be Ferrari, and Mr Bernie Ecclestone, Chairman of the FI Administration believes the best, and most effective colour in the sport is red. This is quite possibly due to the fact that this colour captures the essence of racing including heroism, power, courage, adrenaline, confidence and passion.

When selecting colours that will best represent a sporting club, what the desired colour means is equally as important as what they symbolise to an individual or city. However, to achieve the maximum effect from colours, teams must consider the atmosphere in which these colours will appear. Research suggests that conditions in which the sport is played will influence how supporters perceive the colours used. Therefore by analysing the entire situation in practice, as opposed to merely in theory, a club can avoid manipulation of their initial objectives.

How many times has it been stated "that a piece of clothing looks different under this light." Retailers for many years have manipulated the lighting within their outlets to make consumers appear thinner or more presentable, all in an effort to achieve their objective -sales. Therefore, why is sport any different? A team guernsey that looks greyish green under natural light, can appear bluish green in other lights. (Pavey, 1980, p.132). Therefore, team management must consider under what type of light the colours will be worn.

Many sporting organisations own their own stadiums where they have control over such factors as the brightness of light or greenness of the field. Kurt Goldstein, performed an experiment to determine the effect of coloured lights on the perception of objects. He concluded that red light overestimates objects by making them appear larger and heavier (Pavey, 1980, p.44). This could be advantageous for teams wishing to intimidate the opposition with their size, particularly on a Basketball court, or a Football field. It was also discovered that green or blue lights make objects seem smaller and lighter (Pavey, 1980, p.44). Hence, clubs should ensure that the fixtures within their stadiums are not reflected with these colours

Sporting teams must also consider the ages of their supporters, when determining the composition of their colours. As seen, colours possess numerous meanings for all types of people. Therefore, certain colours are preferred by specific age groups. Some theorists believe that colour preference can be traced back to childhood associations (Pavey, 1980, p.138).

An experiment conducted by Luscher, attempted to determine whether colours have emotional value and create a lasting identity for certain individuals. Based on his research, it was discovered that cool colours appeal to women, primary and earth colours appeal to children, primary and bright colours appeal to poor people, pastel colours appeal to sophisticated people, and dark colours appeal to men or older people. (Pavey, 1980, p.171). Therefore, if teams choose to consider such studies when selecting their colours, they may find that they are more successful when appealing to the largest age group in the surrounding area or supporter base.

The publics direct association with a colour, must also be discussed. If it is a team’s intention to use a colour to represent an element that is important to the geographical history of that city, they may find that the public has an opposing association with that colour. Hence, all symbolic meaning is lost. Numerous studies exist that have all tested for this factor. An experiment of fifteen observers in isolation, were shown a series of sixteen colours in succession. When asked to state the first word or idea that came to them, the following responses were received (Murray, 1952, p.298):

Pale Blue Sky

Green Leaves/Sea

Black Death/Funeral

Scarlet Fire

White Snow/Cold

A subsequent study offered nursery school students a choice of yellow or brown crayons with which they were to depict happiness and saddness. In most cases, yellow was used to depict happiness, and brown was used for sadness. (Pavey, 1980, p.44).

Therefore, it is not suggested that teams let such studies rule their decision of colours, but merely consider and understand the fact that if research overwhelmingly depicts that society associates a particular colour with a specific emotion or object, attempting to project any other meaning may be unsuccessful. Such factors discussed, all have an impact on the way colours are perceived and used. Therefore, if teams broaden their focus to include an investigation into these areas, the results they receive can only improve.

"The only way to make a colour more intense, without adding another colour, is to place a complimentary nearby." (Fabri, 1967, p.27).

Colours should be selected according to their effects on an individual’s mind and on each other (Pavey, 1980, p.139). What allows a colour to produce an emotional response, is often the colour next to it. Many sports teams have failed to recognise the fact that colours placed together can be far more powerful than a colour alone, as they act to intensify each other by appearing to change.

There are specific combinations of colours that when used, produce the best results in terms of appeal and meaning. Therefore, those teams seeking to change their colours, or new emerging clubs should consider these combinations. Complimentary colours indicate that when certain colours are placed together, they act to intensify each other. Blue and orange, yellow, and violet, and red and green all perform in this manner (Fabri, 1967, p.27). These colours appear adequate by themselves. However, when employed together, they produce a striking effect.

Red and blue are also colours that flicker together when seen (Pavey, 1980, p.143). Ironically, when the colour blue is added to another colour, it acts to cool the effect portrayed. Alternatively, red warms colours (Pavey, 1980, p139). Therefore, when warm and cool combine forces, an eye-catching combination is achieved.

The right colour combination can also create an alternative connotation that was not attached to these colours when depicted by themselves. Red and white, the colours of Sydney Swans, signify immortality. This is due to the fact that the shedding of blood leads to a pallor of death (Fontana, 1993, p.52). Red and gold together, represent rank and nobility (Pavey, 1980, p.186), while red and yellow indicate a desire for experience and expansion (Pavey, 1980, p.178).

The colour black is often used by sports teams and positively received by supporters in most circumstances. However, when utilised with various colours, its meaning is contrasting. Black and white, the colours of Collingwood Football Club, signifies the ultimate truth that an individual can possess (Pavey, 1980, p.178). As discussed, the Oakland Raiders are amongst the highest global merchandise sellers of the NFL. Their colour of black, white and silver are symbols of taste and luxury combined (Pavey, 1980, p.178). Similarly black and gold also represent luxury and glamour (Pavey, 1980, pp.171-174).

Arguably the most widely used compliment to black, is red. Chicago Bulls (NBA) and Essendon Football Club (AFL) both use these colour to represent their club. Ironically it’s meaning of suppressed excitement which threatens to discharge itself in aggressive impulses, is quite an accurate description of their styles of play (Pavey, 1980, p.171). Luscher, however, believes the three best colours to use in combination with others, for a new team, are blue, green and red. If blue and green are combined, they represent self esteem, a quality all strong sporting clubs possess (Pavey, 1980, p.172). Red placed with other colours, signifies a desire to conquer and the expectancy of something new (Pavey, 1980, p.172).

Thus, the impact of colours on one another is an issue that needs to be investigated when making a selection. Alone, colours have the capacity to symbolise meaning, together they have the power to enhance, dull, warm, cool and produce alternative meanings. For this reason, selection of a team’s colours should not only be based on the impact they are expected to have on an individual, but also their effect on each other.

Colours in sport have the power to propel a team’s image through boundaries previously thought impenetrable . Today’s society has eroded the barriers between art, music, theatre, and fashion. Sport has now followed. Consumers no longer only purchase sporting apparel as a sign of support for their respective teams. A larger consideration occurs, with street wearability and image evolving as prominent decision making factors.

What attracts consumers to this merchandise, often includes factors beyond a team’s on-field success. Their associations with the colour, how the colour appears under certain conditions, and how the colours work together to create an impression, are primary reasons. Therefore, clubs must consider the bigger picture when selecting colours that will best represent them. Colours that appear visually attractive in a boardroom, may change in the background of a football stadium or basketball court.

Clubs must also investigate the meaning of their colours. As with many teams, it may surprise them to know that the image and ideals they strive to project, are the exact same elements their colours exude. Such information can only ensure a club maximises their resources to their fullest potential.

Gone are the days where sports clubs revolved merely around sports. Today’s language involves business terminology, like product, price, promotion, and positioning. Such an approach has given rise to sports teams working in conjunction with fashion houses to access the best possible information on market trends. However, satisfying what the market demands, is not enough. Clubs must lead by example by creating trends and forcing their consumer to play catch up. The only way to achieve this is to broaden their knowledge on the issue of colours, then use this to manipulate supporters and potential supporters into believing their team is the most appealing within the competition.

The use of colours in sport into the millennium will increase in importance. In the past, colours were merely seen as symbolic. Today they are seen as not only symbolic, but also psychological. In the future, colours will have exhaustive powers and may be used to directly manipulate the mind (Murray, 1952, p.293). The sooner sports organisations recognise and understand the potential of colour, the more creative they may become in addressing the needs of consumers.

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