Body image refers to the way a person sees and feels about her/his body - and other people's bodies. The way a person thinks about their body is developed over a lifetime. Attitudes are formed (and re-formed) as a result of the influences of a range of factors, including:
The influence of the factors listed above (and these are not exhaustive) can be demonstrated by looking at women's fashions and film stars over the past century. Compare the body types being portrayed as 'ideal' in the 1930-50s and those of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. In the early decades of the 20th century, the visual images we have of women are fairly well rounded when compared with today's rather more angular stereotypes. When exactly we began to "think thin" is probably difficult to pinpoint. Was it "Twiggy" in the 1960s or is it a more recent obsession? The point is that our attitudes do change. This is not merely an intellectual exercise, but the result of many influences to which we are subject on a daily basis - some of these are quite subtle and some are fairly blatant.
Images are repeatedly projected at us by the mass media, movie companies, fashion houses, in fact anyone who has anything to sell. These images stereotype men and women by constantly representing the 'ideal' body type. These stereotypes become a standard by which people judge themselves - and others. Perhaps the most objectionable aspect of this process is that often we do not even realize it is happening!
This paper will briefly examine how the factors listed above work to create a 'stereotype' or an 'ideal' man or woman and how this ideal affects participation in sport. Note that this paper does not address the full scope of this issue. A list of Further Readings is included at the end of this article.
Representation in the Media
Visual images are everywhere. Television, magazines, movies, newspapers,
billboards, the internet; all are powerful creators of the 'desirable' man or
woman. They reinforce and perpetuate stereotypes with which we compare the
reality of our own body. Similarities between the 'ideal' and our own bodies are
commended and differences are considered unattractive. A negative body image can
occur when our perception of ourselves deviates too greatly from the ideals
constantly represented in visual images.
Both men and women use their physical appearance, weight and body shape, as a measure of self worth and physical attractiveness. However, there appears to less room for manoeuvre for women and girls. Females seem to place a far greater emphasis and importance on their physical appearance than males - for example, the majority of people with eating disorders are women and girls. It is for this reason that this paper concentrates on the issue as it relates to women.
Visual images of the 'ideal' woman are used to sell everything from cars to icecream. This commodification of the female body (ie treating the body as property - something which can be traded or traded upon) can lead women to identify their physical appearance as a type of currency - personal worth or value as measured by body type. The closer to the 'ideal', the more valuable (or valued) the person feels.
Cultural Traditions
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder, as modified by particular cultural
traditions. Different cultures have different ideas of physical beauty. For
example, tattoos, body piercing and small feet are valued attributes in
non-Western cultures and, in direct opposition to Western ideals of beauty, some
South Pacific cultures consider "big is beautiful". The point is that there is
no "right" or "wrong"; physical beauty is a matter of cultural taste.
Cultural traditions are difficult to resist, especially as they are reinforced by media representations of an epitome of beauty, as well as being reflected in our everyday relationships.
Attitudes of family and friends
Attitudes of people with whom we have a close relationship are influential in
two ways. First, in reinforcing a stereotype by positive comments/conversations
regarding the ideal body type. Secondly, through criticism of 'perceived'
differences from the ideal, especially if these criticisms concern ourselves.
These criticisms/comments can be about anything from hair colour to weight.
Casual comments can be as devastating as strident criticism to the recipient.
"You should lose a bit of weight" or "She looks so good now that she has lost
those extra pounds" can engender a negative self-image. A negative self-image
can lead to a loss of self-confidence, eating disorders or social/behavioural
problems.
Sport and Body Image
Gender Stereotypes and Sport
Attitudes about gender-appropriate sports, masculinity, and femininity are
influenced in the same way as body image. Participation in certain sports is
often represented in the media as 'unfeminine'. Test your reactions - which of
the pair of sports listed below would you choose to play as a sportswoman:
basketball/boxing; racquet sports/wrestling; water polo/weight lifting. For
women - Why did you find the second choice to be inappropriate? For men, what is
your choice between sewing and football - and why?
Stereotypes influence the types of sports in which women are likely to participate. Not only are sports labelled masculine or feminine, those female athletes who participate in sports are also subject to being labelled and stereotyped as either masculine (lesbian) or feminine (conforming to the ideal).
Sport can be a liberating experience for women, a chance for women to be in control of their own bodies. However, when women start to develop attributes that are 'perceived' to be masculine, for example muscle bulk and competitiveness, they are often subject to a type of harassment that comes of stepping outside the conventional range of ideal(ised) female bodies. There are a number of athletes who have received this sort of public treatment - Bev Francis, Dawn Fraser, Martina Navratilova, Lindsay Davenport, and the list goes on.
Control of Body Image
Diet and exercise are used to alter one's body to conform to ideal female
images. These practices control women and can lead to eating disorders. There is
concern regarding the relationship between eating disorders and elite female
athletes, especially in sports with an emphasis on aesthetics and body
presentation. Research has clearly linked negative body image with the
prevalence of eating disorders and the susceptibility of those women with
negative body image to develop poor eating behaviours. The relationship is
consistent, almost every person suffering from an eating disorder suffers from a
severely distorted body image.
Media images tend to trivialise, marginalise and heterosexualise women athletes rather than appreciating them for their athletic prowess, strength, skill and dedication. Where then is the place for women athletes? Strong and powerful women confront the idealised representation of women. Sportswomen who are not as strong and confident but who are pretty to look at, are accepted as women, but their athletic prowess is not taken seriously. Are women sexualised and trivialised in the media because they are a threat to male dominance in sports? One time Wimbledon winner, Pat Cash, who refused to dance with Martina Navratilova on the basis that she was too masculine, now criticises women tennis players for not being 'fit'.
Taking Action - Participate and Feel Great
Participation in sports is one of the best ways to improve body image according to research performed by the Melpomene Institute in Minneapolis. It has been found that women who participate in sports and physical activity have a more positive body image than those women who do not participate in any form of physical activity. Participation in sports elicits approval from peers and family and friends and helps women feel that their bodies are capable and competent. These positive feelings produce a positive body image. While this may sound contrary to the information above, positive body image is developed only when the immediate environment is supportive and the experiences are positive.
Although body image is profoundly shaped by social, political, racial, age and gender constraints, these experiences are not static and are vulnerable to other more modern influences. We have the power to resist and change these stereotypes. Empowering women is one of the most important steps that can lead to economic, social and political change, not just a sporting change. By refusing the stereotype, women will have access to a greater diversity of experiences that shape body image and self-concept. And hopefully this will lead to a more equitable sporting environment, one in which both men and women are valued for their sporting achievements and abilities rather than the way they look.
Further Reading
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