How do you coach?
Issue: Volume 28 Number 2
It is not unusual for coaches in the early stages of their career to be primarily concerned with what to coach. But as coaches develop their competence in deciding what content to include in training sessions, their focus should be directed towards the manner in which they coach. That is, they should reflect on how they are coaching.
Although there are many approaches or styles of coaching, there has been a tendency for coaches to adopt a more authoritarian approach to their coaching. The basis for adopting a more authoritarian approach has its origins in the early twentieth century, when physical educators used a military style approach to ‘discipline the masses’.
This ‘command’ style or direct approach to instruction is still common today and, although it has merit in the transmission of information (motor skill acquisition), there are alternative approaches to coaching that can be just as effective and more appropriate for other learning outcomes, such as developing intelligent performers.
Employing a variety of coaching approaches is important because different types of content require different approaches to instruction. For example, coaching football should require some different approaches from swimming or rhythmic gymnastics coaching. Even within the same sport (for example, basketball), a variety of coaching approaches should be considered. In deciding what approach to adopt the coach should consider the intended learning outcomes of the training session or part of a session.
Coaching approaches
The coach is central to the quality of learning that takes place in the coaching environment, and key to that are the approaches to coaching that are adopted. The primary purpose of this article is to provide coaches with alternative approaches to coaching that can promote learning and motivation.
Understandably, the various approaches to coaching have been adopted from those used in teaching physical education. Over 40 years ago, academics articulated a variety of teaching/coaching approaches and, although they have been theorised to produce particular learning outcomes, there has been little systematic research examining the utility of such approaches to instruction/coaching. Nor has there been much research that has examined what approaches teachers/coaches adopt and why.
Mosston (1966) identified two broad approaches to teaching and coaching, namely, reproductive and productive. Reproductive approaches to coaching are consistent with a coach-centred approach, in which the coach plays an autocratic and central role in the learning process. In this broad approach, the coach directly shapes the learning while the athlete makes few or no decisions in the learning process.
In the productive approaches to coaching, the focus shifts towards a democratic style, in which the coach facilitates or guides the learning (for example, the games-sense approach). In the broad cluster of productive approaches, the responsibility for learning shifts towards the athlete (that is, the learner). Thus, the athlete has increased input into the decision-making in the planning, execution and evaluation of the learning process.
In reflecting on the form of coaching used, it is useful for the coach to think about the goal of the task, and the roles of both the coach and the athlete in the coaching–learning process. A key question is, ‘How will I coach?’ It invites critical thinking about the selection of a coaching approach for the specific task undertaken. That is, was the selection of coaching approach appropriate? Is there another approach that might work as well or better?
Reproductive approaches
These forms of coaching are termed reproductive because they require little, if any, input from the athlete, except to reproduce the skill required. This is normally achieved through high volumes of repetition and quality practice.
- Command — In this approach the coach simplifies the skills into its component parts and usually demonstrates how the skill should be performed. The coach is responsible for providing feedback as the athletes try to copy the model demonstrated by the coach.
- Practice — In this approach the coach sets up a number of ‘stations’, at which athletes perform a pre-determined skill or exercise. The athletes perform at one station and on completion move to the next station. The advantage of this approach is that the athletes can perform the tasks at their own pace. The coach provides feedback when required.
- Reciprocal — Also known as ‘peer’ coaching, theorists argue that this approach promotes social development because it requires athletes to work together in pairs. One partner performs the skill and the other athlete provides feedback. In this approach, the athletes often use a checklist to assist in providing feedback.
- Self-check — In this approach the athletes work independently on a task. The use of a checklist developed by the coach — sometimes with diagrams or photos of the skill — assists the athlete in checking their work.
- Inclusion — The coach designs a task, which includes several levels of difficulty to cater for the varying levels of ability. In this approach the athletes can choose to work at the level at which they feel challenged.
Productive approaches
These approaches to coaching involve a more active engagement of the athlete in the learning process, which is why they are termed ‘productive’. They aim to enhance both the motivation of the athlete to learn and the quality of that learning in novel and more complex contexts. An example of productive methods of coaching can be observed in the coaching of team sports, which adopt the teaching games for understanding, or games-sense approach. That is, they require the athlete to think, which is consistent with the ‘intelligent performer’ view of sport performance. This requires the athlete to analyse, synthesise and evaluate information.
- Guided discovery — In contrast to providing athletes with the solutions to problems encountered in their sport (for example, game strategy to get past the opposition), the coach guides the athletes towards the solution using a series of structured questions. The coach facilitates the athletes’ discovery of the most appropriate strategies. This approach encourages greater independence. For example, guiding the athlete to understanding the optimal angle of release of the javelin could be approached through a discovery method. Obviously, the quality of the questions is crucial in guiding and challenging the athlete.
- Problem solving — Although similar to guided discovery, in this approach there might be a number of potential solutions to the problem. The athlete is responsible for finding solutions, and works either independently or in a small group. Advantages of this approach are that it can accommodate differing learning styles, different stages of development and different backgrounds of athletes. Problem solving is particularly suitable for tasks that require more complex thinking, such as improving the defensive pattern to counter a strong attacking opposition.
Questions that can be used in productive approaches to coaching include:
- What are three options in beating your opponent one-on-one?
- We discussed and identified the most effective way to beat your opponent in [situation]. How might you defend against that strategy?
- Looking at the video, you can see that the player made the decision to shoot the ball? Was that the most appropriate decision? What would you have done in that situation? Why? Who agrees?
Conclusion
Productive approaches to coaching actively engage the athletes in the learning process, and their adoption can be found to be more appropriate in complex coaching situations.
The inclusion of reproductive approaches to coaching should not be excluded, but their utility has limitations in the development of intelligent performers.
Importantly, the use of a variety of approaches to coaching is recommended, and the decision as to how to coach should be based on the intended learning outcomes.
Reference
Mosston, M 1966, Teaching Physical Education: from command to discovery, Charles E. Merrill Books, Columbus, Ohio.
Dr Cliff Mallett coordinates the postgraduate programs in sports coaching at the University of Queensland, in conjunction with the Australian Sports Commission. He is an international coach, sport psychologist and researcher in coaching and sport psychology.
