Competence (physical literacy)

Physical literacy is about building the skills, knowledge and behaviours to be confident and motivated to lead active lives.
Physical literacy is about building the skills, knowledge and behaviours that give individuals the confidence and motivation to lead active lives. It includes physical, social, cognitive, and psychological elements that can be developed lifelong, but generally start in childhood. 51
Research from the UK Active Lives survey in 2024 highlighted that physically literate children and young people were happier, more likely to keep trying until they can do something, and more likely to trust others of a similar age to themselves. 42

A desire to improve their skill or ability in sport can be a key motivation for sport participation for children and young people. 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 19
On the other hand, low levels of physical literacy or perceived competence and fearing judgement can be significant barriers. They can lead to lower enjoyment and a higher likelihood of dropping out or being insufficiently physically active that can impact lifetime health and wellbeing. 2, 3, 9, 12, 13, 17, 21, 26, 29, 37, 40, 41, 42, 52, 53, 54, 55
Many factors can impact an individual’s development of physical literacy and feelings of competence, including age, gender, having a disability, cultural and social influences, and access to and quality of programs or movement experiences. 17, 21, 26, 29, 42, 52, 55, 56, 57
The 2019 Suncorp Australian Youth and Confidence research found that around one third of girls aged 11-17 stopped playing sport because they thought they weren’t good at it, while 90% derived confidence through support from families and friends. 58
Parents, teachers, coaches, and other role models can play an important role in children and youth developing their skills and enjoyment in sport by providing positive, inclusive, and enjoyable activities and modelling active lifestyles and play. 21, 29, 36, 52, 59, 60
Resources and reading 
Suncorp Australian Youth and Confidence Research 2019, opens in a new tab, Suncorp Australia, (May 2019). In 2017, Suncorp partnered with Netball Australia to launch Team Girls, an initiative to build a nation of confident girls in sport. This movement was a response to the 2017 Suncorp Australian Youth and Confidence Research which revealed startling insights about Australian teen girls including their declining self-esteem as they grow older and their decreased participation in team sports. This year, we conducted the same research. It found Australian girls still need our support to stop turning their backs on sport. It’s more important than ever to keep girls in the game today, so we can create more confident women tomorrow. Nearly 50% of girls turn their back on sport by age 17.
1 in 3 girls aged 11-17 years stop playing sport because they think they're not good at it.
9 in 10 girls derive confidence through support from friends and family.
The number one reason for starting to play sport in the first place is because friends and/or siblings were playing.
2 in 3 girls acknowledge that sport can make them feel confident.
Almost 3 in 4 girls see sport participation as important.
65% of girls aged 11-17 agree that playing sport makes them feel great about themselves.
Active Lives Children and Young People Survey: Academic year 2023-24, opens in a new tab, Sport England, (December 2024). This report presents data from the Active Lives Children and Young People Survey for the academic year 2023-24. Data is presented for children and young people in school Years 1-11 (ages 5-16) in England. Children and young people from the least affluent families are the least likely to be active, with only 45% meeting the Chief Medical Officers’ guidelines - compared to 57% of those from the most affluent families. Children and young people from the least affluent families are also under-represented as volunteers.
Young people who were active, volunteered, and/or were physically literate were more likely to report higher levels of happiness, willingness to keep trying when something was difficult, and trust in people of a similar age to them, as opposed to those where were fairly or less active, did not volunteer, and/or had less positive attitudes towards sport and physical activity (physical literacy).
Children and young people who report three or more positive attitudes (have a meaningful relationship with activity and/or are physically literate), 62% are active, compared to just 34% of those who report no positive attitudes. Gaining just one additional positive attitude could have a positive impact on activity levels (just as being more active could lead to more positive attitudes) and as such reinforces the importance of supporting all children and young people to have the best possible experience of being active. Boys (43%) are more likely than girls (25%) or gender diverse (27%) to have three or more positive attitudes.
The likelihood of having three or more positive attitudes increases with affluence.
Children and young people with a disability or long-term health condition are less likely to have three or more positive attitudes, compared to those without.
The likelihood of having three or more positive attitudes decreases with age.
Black children and young people are the most likely to have three or more positive attitudes, while Asian children and young people are the least likely to.
cBuilding and preserving primary school girls' confidence through physical activity: Evaluation of M2: Where Movement and Mindfulness Meet, opens in a new tab, Annette Stride, Hayley Fitzgerald, Kate Marks, et al., Leeds Beckett University, (2024). The findings of the study demonstrate that the M2 programme provides a range of benefits for those taking part- improvements in physical developments and fitness; social outcomes including connecting with others and developing friendships; and positive mental wellbeing outcomes including resilience, pride, and confidence. Many of these outcomes were evidently being transferred into other school spaces leading to additional benefits. For example, girls raising their hands in class more, a positive outlook towards exam results, increased belief in their own abilities, public speaking, leadership roles, a more positive attitude towards physical activity, increased engagement in PE, participation in other after-school clubs, and girls becoming active in wider community settings.
Girls Active National Reports 2024, opens in a new tab, Youth Sports Trust, (2024). The Youth Sport Trust have been conducting a Girls Active Survey since 2016, finding out what the barriers, motivations and perceptions are for UK girls in PE, physical activity and sport, both in and outside of school and how these differ to boys. In 2024 over 15,000 young people took part in the survey. Some of this year’s key results: Nearly two thirds of girls (62%) want to be more active in school but there are barriers that stop them taking part such as not being confident, having their period and being watched by others.
The most common barriers to being active at school for boys were not being confident, when it's outside and not nice weather, can't be bothered, not enjoying, or being good at it.
The number of girls enjoying PE drops notably throughout school life: 86% of girls age 7 to 8 enjoy PE, compared to 56% of girls age 14 to 15; 46% of girls age 14-15 report a lack of confidence stops them being more active at school compared with 26% of girls aged 7-8.
Only 1 in 4 girls aged 11-13 feel confident in their PE kit, a drop from 65% aged 7-8. 58% of girls want more PE kit options compared to just 29% of boys.
Overall, boys were more likely to enjoy taking part in PE (87% compared to 77% of girls), physical activity (87% compared to 66% of girls), and enjoy learning at school (48% compared to 46% of girls).
Daring to Dream: The Gender Dream Deficit in Sport, opens in a new tab, Women in Sport, (December 2023). The 2023 Women’s World Cup had a positive impact on girls in the UK who watched with 9 in 10 saying it made them feel proud and happy. But despite the increased visibility and success of women’s sport, a very significant dream deficit persists between girls and boys. Girls who love sport and take part a lot now have heroes and can dream of reaching the top, but this group makes up just 19% of all girls. The dream deficit widens with age: 27% of girls aged 13-18 dream about becoming a top athlete or sportsperson, compared to 45% of boys. For those aged 19-24, only 31% of girls dream compared to 61% of boys. Rates have not changed significantly since 2020.
Top 3 barriers preventing girls and boys from becoming a top athlete or sportsperson: Girls: Not enough funding for girls’ sport; Girls aren’t encouraged to excel in sport; Girls don’t have the chance to try enough different sports. Boys: Not enough opportunities, clubs and teams to join locally; Men can’t get the right level of training and coaching; Not enough funding for boys’ sport.
Around a third of girls think that 'people think sport is for boys and doesn't matter for girls' (32%) and that girls are not expected to be good at sport (35%), or to excel at sport (39%).
Top 5 barriers to sport participation for girls: Don't like people watching and judging me; Don't feel good enough; Don't like doing sport when I have my period; Too much schoolwork so no time; don't feel safe training on dark winter evenings.
Top 5 barriers to sport participation for boys: Don't feel good enough; Don't like people watching and judging me; Too much schoolwork; Don't feel safe training on dark winter evenings; feel uncomfortable wearing sports kit.
The top three things that would encourage girls and boys to get more involved in sport are very similar between genders: more opportunities to try lots of different sports at a young age; more opportunities to join clubs and teams outside school; more opportunities to play different sports at school; but, girls were much more likely to want more single sex (i.e. girls only) opportunities to take part (24% compared to 6% of boys wanting more boys only opportunities).
MOVENOW MOVE365: Understanding trends in youth sport participation, opens in a new tab, International Olympic Committee and Allianz, (August 2023). Five thousand young people between 12 and 24 years, and two thousand parents of 12–18-year-olds, across 10 countries (Australia, Brazil, France, Germany, Indonesia, Italy, Nigeria, Spain, Switzerland and USA) were surveyed to understand levels of sport participation, motivations, barriers, and concerns, particularly in the context of current global challenges. The research findings are consistent with the broad body of evidence about young people and sport participation. However, the research provides a contemporary snapshot and a unique level of demographic detail which highlights key and emerging issues. 72% of young people think sports participation is important.
Over 90% of parents said improving physical and mental health, having fun (94%) and improving self-confidence applied to them (a lot or a little) as reasons for their child to play sport.
About half of all young people surveyed reporting that on days when there is physical activity, they enjoy school more (55%) and their concentration is better (46%). The benefits are even clearer when comparing those young people who play sport or are physically active at least once a week with young people who are active less than once a month. The more active group were more likely to report that they are happy with their school performance (70%) and enjoy school (68%), than those playing less than once a month (61% and 58% respectively). The active group was also more likely to find it easier to concentrate at school after physical activity (48%) than the less active group (29%).
Young people who played sport or did physical activity at least once per week were more likely to report feeling happy most of the time, greater self-confidence, feeling a sense of belonging, ability to concentrate for long periods, being outgoing, rarely feeling stressed or anxious when compared to those who didn't play sport or do physical activity (less than once a month).
The concerns expressed by young people about participating in sport more (or at all) provide an insight into what stops them having fun. They were concerned, a little or a lot about doing it with strangers, or on their own, and about the judgement of others, and not being fit enough. Each of these issues is more of a concern for the group of young people who feel negatively about sport.
Sport, Stereotypes and Stolen Dreams: Why girls still feel they don’t belong in sport, opens in a new tab, Women in Sport, (March 2023). Funded by Sport England this research project conducted in depth work with 24 families who have daughters and ran two nationally representative surveys over 2,000 parents of girls and boys aged 5-11 years old. We explored girls’ early experiences of sport and physical activity and the attitudes and influences that shape perceptions at this young age. Only 30% of parents think playing sport is very important for their daughters compared to 41% of parents for their son.
82% of girls ages 5 to 11 with parents who loved sport also loved sport themselves, compared to 59% of girls with parents who didn’t like sport.
Girls’ enjoyment and motivation in sport centred around four key elements: personal achievement; a feeling of belonging and familiarity; seeing others like them taking part; and experiencing that feel-good factor and freedom sport and exercise elicit.
What do we need to do to give girls a more positive start? Surround girls with the expectation that they will succeed; Build girls’ skills early so there’s a level playing field; Don’t ‘dumb it down’ for girls; Provide more opportunities for young girls; Harness the school and after school environment.
Factors relating to women and girls' participation (retention and dropout) in sport, opens in a new tab, Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, (February 2023). The survey was completed by 5,055 women and girls including 2,016 who played football and 3,039 who participated in gymnastics. The proportion of women and girls who had dropped out (48%) was slightly lower than that of those who were still participating in football/gymnastics (52%). Women who dropped out of sport and those who continued participating had very similar motivations. However, retained women were more motivated by social reasons and to be outdoors (for football players), whereas those who had dropped out were more motivated by learning a new skill and because sport gave them a sense of achievement. For girls in both the retained and dropout group, having fun participating in gymnastics was driven by being challenged to improve, having a friendly coach and trying their best.
Change the Game 2.0: Change the Culture, Change the Game, opens in a new tab, MLSE Foundation, (October 2022). Through an intersectional approach, the study examined the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and restrictions on youth sport, the demographics of access and engagement, barriers to participation, and ideas for building a better sport system for Ontario’s diverse youth. This report provides fresh insights on who has been able to return to play, the quality of their experience and, more profoundly, explores issues of culture, belonging and wellness, reinforced by two years of data and the perspectives of thousands of youth. In total, 8202 youth and parents across Ontario participated in this research by sharing their return-to-play experiences relating to sport access, engagement, equity, and culture.
School Sport Survey: State of the Nation 2022, opens in a new tab, Sport Wales, (2022). The School Sport Survey is a national survey of pupils from years 3 to 11, looking into attitudes, behaviours and opportunities for young people in sport. The survey is key to understanding who, where, and how often young people participate in, and have a demand for, sport(s). Teachers are also offered the opportunity to share their views on school sport provision and the support they need to deliver it. The results of the survey allow Sport Wales, schools, local authorities, sports and the wider sector to shape the future of sport, in line with the voices of young people. This report contains key data that can help to better understand the sporting landscape for young people across Wales, providing a base of evidence from which to shape policy and practice. Responses to ‘I would do more sport if...’ by gender showed that a much higher percentage of girls reported they would do more sport if they were ‘more confident’ (31% compared to 17%); better at sports (23% to 17%), or if someone went with me (31% compared to 15%). Girls were also more likely to report lower enjoyment of PE, extracurricular sport, and community sport.
28% of pupils stated that they were ‘very confident’ in trying new sports, while 8% of pupils said they were ‘not confident at all’. Although boys were significantly more likely than girls to say that they were ‘very confident’ in trying new sports, both genders were equally as likely to say they were ‘quite confident’.
Asian Girls Insight Research: Barclays Girls' Football School Partnership by England Football, opens in a new tab, Youth Sport Trust, (August 2021). There is currently a lack of Asian girls accessing both participation and leadership opportunities through football. This research formed part of the work funded by The Football Association to provide a better understanding of the specific demographic of Asian girls. It was an insight piece of work, using a sample of the target population. The 39 Asian female participants were a mixture of girls engaged with and not engaged with sport, football, and physical activity from Years 8 to 10 (ages 12-15). The influence of the family was an overarching theme that emerged from the focus groups. There was a mix of girls from those who felt they had supportive parents, encouraging them to play sport and be active, to those who felt that they experienced barriers to participation as a direct result of their families.
Girls highlighted the important role PE plays in encouraging and supporting girls to participate in football. Ensuring PE is open and inclusive, as well as promoting the positive work girls are achieving in PE, is something girls felt would improve participation. Additionally, girls felt that within school, they should be given as many opportunities as the boys to be involved in sport whether that be as a coach or participant, as currently they do not feel they get equal opportunities.
Fear of judgement was noted by many girls and so could be regarded as a main theme of the focus groups.
Participating in sport with those of the same ability, was another factor highlighted by the girls in the focus groups. It could be suggested that this factor relates to their feelings of being judged by others, as if they are in a group with those of the same ability, others are less likely to judge them if they do something wrong or do not perform in a certain way.
Life-stages-resource.pdf, Australian Sports Commission, (2020). Exploring each life stage in detail allows organisations to understand the physical activity levels and behaviours of each age group and target their participation offerings accordingly. It’s also important to understand that sports and clubs don’t need to have an offer for every age group. It’s often more effective to target life stages or market segments when launching a new product or modifying an existing participation experience. Life stages include children (5-11 and 12-14 years), youth (15-17 years), young adults (18-24 and 25-34 years), adults (18-34 years), and older adults (aged 55 years and over).
Physically literate girls: the need for schools to develop girls who are physically literate, opens in a new tab, ACHPER Victoria, Victoria University and the Office for Women in Sport and Recreation, (2020). According to recent research, Australia is ranked one of the worst performers for 11–17 year old girls globally. Over 90% of girls surveyed reported insufficient levels of physical activity, with a marked decrease in sport participation by girls during the 12–14 years of age and from 17+ years. As girls grow older, they report lower levels of enjoyment, confidence, competence and understanding, particularly during the teenage years. ACHPER Victoria has worked with Victoria University and partnered with the Office for Women in Sport and Recreation (Change Our Game) to understand why this is, and how we can work together as communities to help change these statistics for the better. A new infographic designed to help communicate research findings and provide a clear pathway for schools and communities to create better opportunities for girls to become physically literate.
Secondary Age Review, opens in a new tab, Sport New Zealand, (March 2019). This research looks into secondary school aged young people’s participation in sport and active recreation, and current and future enablers and barriers to this participation. The Secondary Age Review was conducted in response to the Active NZ survey (2017) and concerns that the changing participation needs of 12–17-year-olds in Aotearoa are not being met by today’s sport and active recreation offering. Key insights include: The majority (76%) of young people participate in physical activity for fun, to hang out with friends (45%) for fitness and health (31%) and to learn new skills (31%). These motivations differ by type of activity, and the primary motivation shifts from fun to health and fitness through the teenage years.
A significant proportion (21%) are affected by judgement barriers: lack of confidence, fitness or fear of failure. Judgement barriers are more prevalent for girls (25% for girls cf. 16% for boys).
Secondary-aged young people are more likely to join a community club for competition, seek improved coaching through that environment and to have been injured in the past 12 months, when compared with other age cohorts.
Our Active NZ Survey (2017) shows a positive correlation between the amount of time spent being active, and a series of wellbeing indicators: emotional wellbeing, healthy eating, sleep and reduced screen time.
Addressing the decline in sport participation in secondary schools, opens in a new tab, Australian Sports Commission and La Trobe University, (November 2017). The Australian Sports Commission (ASC) partnered with La Trobe University’s Centre for Sport and Social Impact to conduct a research pilot involving secondary schools and sport sector partners to evaluate, measure and report on the impact of interventions. The findings build upon existing global research to provide a better understanding of what is successful in the Australian school context. The research identified: the groups of disengaged students, who they are, their barriers and motivations; the value of the sport-in-school relationship and how to build it; and strategies to enhance engagement through program delivery, deliverer and design. The research also collated: 10 Recommended development areas for sporting organisations currently delivering in secondary schools; and 14 Program design and delivery principles for creating new secondary school sport programs. Key motivators for students were: Physical health and fitness, Learning or improving sport skills, Interpersonal skills i.e. teamwork, Mental stimulation and health, Social aspect and fun, Environmental benefits i.e. getting fresh air outdoors.
Key barriers for students (in school) were: loss of interest; competing extra-curricular commitments; long-term disengagement from sport; education and awareness of the benefits of sport; Injury; Confidence; Cultural barriers; Gender; Weather; Familiarity with the sport; Barriers faced by their school.
Key barriers for students (outside of school) were: parent/guardian support (financial, time, priorities, not valuing sport, gender bias, far of injury); other time commitments; changing sports (from ones they already know/participate in); Limited access; Skill competence for competition (not being skilled enough); Conflict between school and out-of-school competitions.
Youth Insights Pack: The challenge of growing youth participation in sport, opens in a new tab, Sport England, (August 2014). The result of our recent research is this pack of insights, which is divided into sections: The first section provides an overview of life as a 14-25 year old today to set the context for their relationship with sport. This includes the challenges of growing up in a recession, the changes that young people go through, the role of their peers and the importance of technology in their lives. The second section introduces and explores what we have learned about young people’s attitudes towards sport and the relationship these have to their behaviours. It concludes we need to take action to break the norm if we are to increase youth participation. The third section explores in more depth the characteristics of three key audiences; young people who are positive about sport but mostly not participating, those who recognise the benefits and have a functional relationship with sport/activity, and those who are uninterested in participating in sport. It then provides a set of design principles which detail the type of overall experience each audience group is looking for. The pack concludes with examples of programmes and approaches that are already successfully engaging different audiences through applying some of the insights.
Why sports? Sketching a typology of young people’s reasons for taking part in sports, opens in a new tab, Lars Erik Espedalen, Ørnulf Seippel, Sport in Society, (17 July 2024). We sketch a typology of sport participation reasons grounded in data from 2581 short-answers from youths in organized sports. We develop the typology abductively against theories from philosophy, sociology, and psychology to better capture the full scale of possible participation reasons in organized youth sport. Key empirical findings are, first, that in addition to having fun and being with friends, youths participate to expand their social networks and develop weak social ties into stronger ones. Second, competition and mastery are intertwined. Competitions can function as a measure stick for individual and team skill development. Third, physical and mental health reasons are common participation reasons. Youths appreciate how sport impact their everyday health. Fourth, youths combine reasons for sport participation in diverse ways that have theoretical and practical implications. We end by suggesting two ideal types of how organized sport participation reasons combine—a heavy and light sport appreciation. Authors also listed some surprising themes that emerged in the responses, including:
Creating optimally safe and enjoyable youth sporting experiences within the United Kingdom, opens in a new tab, Maita G. Furusa, Camilla J. Knight, Thomas D. Love, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 73, (July 2024). The purpose of the current study was to explore perceptions of the process through which an optimally safe and enjoyable sporting experience can be created for young people. Interviews were conducted with 19 young people, six parents, nine coaches, and five individuals in safeguarding roles. The interviews were analysed through open and axial coding, followed by theoretical integration. The resultant theory highlighted that establishing positive relationships between all young people and key individuals in a physically and developmentally safe environment was a fundamental requirement for fostering an optimally safe and enjoyable sporting experience. Achieving this required consideration of factors both in the immediate and broad sporting context. Specifically, support from sports organisations, access to continuing professional development opportunities, and a network of safeguarding experts are required in the broader environment. While within the immediate sporting environment, visibly displayed and appropriately implemented safeguarding policies and procedures; open, honest, and respectful interactions; shared goals and expectations between parents, coaches, and young people, and; trusting and supportive friendships with shared experiences are required.
The motivations to play organised club-based sport in Australia, opens in a new tab, Rochelle Eime, Jack Harvey, Melanie Charity, et al., Leisure Studies, (1 May 2024). The aim of this study was to investigate the motivations to play sport across: age, gender, residential location and the settings, modes and level of participation. An online survey of sport participants asked about age, gender, residential location, type of sports and physical activities participated in, frequency and duration of play, and motivations for playing organised club-based sport. Survey respondents (N = 4,395) were aged between 13–92 years. An online survey of sport participants was conducted during May and June 2020 using the Qualtrics survey tool. Recruitment to the survey was primarily facilitated by national and state sporting organisations. The target population was people aged 13 years or older who were registered with a State or National Sporting Organisation in the 2019 and/or 2020 playing seasons to participate in one or more sports. The sport organisations that sent out the survey invitation to their registered participants represent major sports in Victoria and Australia. Overwhelmingly, the main motivation to play sport across all demographic groups and sport characteristics was fun and enjoyment. Other main motivations to play sport were physical health or fitness (which may promote autonomy), performance and competition, followed by social reasons (relatedness), to be with friends (relatedness), and for a sense of achievement (competence). The motivations to play sport also differed across the lifespan.
Young people (aged 13–17 years) were more motivated for physical health or fitness, performance, and competition as well as a sense of achievement and to learn new skills.
Dropout and social inequality: young people’s reasons for leaving organized sports, opens in a new tab, Lars Erik Espedalen, Ørnulf Seippel, Annals of Leisure Research, Volume 27(2), pp.197-214, (2024). Few quantitative studies have looked at how reasons for quitting organized sports vary according to social backgrounds. The present paper addresses this gap by investigating how youths’ perceptions of six reasons for dropping out of organized youth sports vary according to three types of social inequality: socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender. We utilize data from the 2015 Young in Oslo survey, where organized youth sport dropouts in grades 8–13 rated the importance of six reasons for dropping out (N = 2355, response rate = 72%). Two findings stand out. First, gender differences were subtle and often related to ethnicity; they were more pronounced among majority youths than minority youths. Second, well-resourced majority youths were more likely to consider a lack of sports skills and friends who quit as important to dropout while minority youths with less resources more often highlighted discouragement from parents and sport expenses.
Identifying profiles of actual and perceived motor competence measured with aligned instruments: Differences in (enjoyment of) physical fitness, opens in a new tab, Elisa Lefever, Eline Coppens, Felien Laureys, et al., Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 42(11), pp.1041-1049, (2024). A person-centred approach was used to examine whether children with various actual and perceived motor competence (AMC and PMC) profiles differ in (enjoyment of) physical fitness (PF). The strength of the relationship between AMC and PMC was also assessed through aligned assessment tools. A sample of 287 7–11-year-old children (47.40% boys, Mage = 8.92 ± .78 years) was assessed on AMC with the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder (KTK3), and on PF with six validated fitness tests. Animated videos fully aligned with the AMC- and PF-tests were used to assess children’s PMC and enjoyment of PF, respectively. Cluster analyses identified one convergent (i.e. high AMC-high PMC) and three partially convergent AMC-PMC profiles (i.e. low AMC-high PMC). Furthermore, children with relatively high AMC (i.e. high-average profile) reported higher PF, while children with relatively high PMC (i.e. average-high profile) reported higher enjoyment of PF. The correlation between AMC and PMC was significant but weak. Overall, it seems important to invest in both children’s AMC and PMC as they may support a higher (enjoyment of) PF, potentially leading to higher PA-levels. When looking at enjoyment of physical fitness, perceived motor competence seemed to be a more important factor than actual motor competence. However, profile analyses revealed that a relatively high perceived motor competence score may not fully compensate the loss of enjoyment in physical fitness when children’s actual motor competence is relatively low.
When it comes to physical fitness, actual motor competence rather than perceived motor competence seemed to play the biggest role. As extra high perceived motor competence did not add additional benefits in terms of physical fitness, there might have been a ceiling effect of perceived motor competence.
Youth sport dropout according to the Process-Person-Context-Time model: a systematic review, opens in a new tab, Kylie Moulds, Sheila Galloway, Shaun Abbott, et al., International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Volume 17(1), pp.440-481, (2024). This study systematically reviewed how youth sport dropout literature has been theoretically framed; how dropout has been defined and measured; and mapped all influential factors previously associated (or not) with dropout across and within youth sport. Peer-reviewed literature (N = 69 studies) published over four decades (1980–2021) residing within five databases was synthesised using a mixed-methods review approach. Existing identified studies examined single or multi-sport (male and female) youth sport contexts worldwide, at different participation levels, although predominantly local club-level. Prior studies predominantly adopted psychological-based theoretical frameworks; often didn’t define dropout; assessed dropout descriptively; and, focused upon the influence of psychological-based factors. From a PPCT perspective, competition structure, relative age (Process), sex, competence perception (Personal), parental socio-demographics, and conflicts with other activities (Context) were frequently identified as influential to dropout across contexts. Although not explicitly utilising the PPCT, sixteen studies examined factors across PPCT levels, with one identifying significant independent influences across the model. Future research is recommended to apply more encompassing (social-ecological) theoretical frameworks; specify dropout definitions and measures; and apply more advanced analytical methods. To help improve study methodological quality, the ‘Youth Sport Dropout - Study Checklist (YSD-SC)’ is presented.
What do adolescents and young adults strive for in sport and exercise? An explorative study on goal profiles in sport and exercise, opens in a new tab, Vanessa Gut, Achim Conzelmann, Julia Schmid, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 40(5), pp.571-582, (2022). In sport and exercise promotion, it is important to consider goals because achieving these goals leads to a sense of well-being and behaviour adherence. Individuals often pursue multiple goals simultaneously. Therefore, it is also important to not only consider each individual’s combination of goals but also to identify so-called “goal profiles”. Taking a developmental-psychological perspective, the goal profiles of adolescents (aged 14-19 years) may differ from those of young adults (aged 20-34 years). 966 adolescents and 636 young adults, were questioned by self-report on their goals in sport and exercise, self-determined motivation, sport and exercise behaviour, and gender. for the majority of adolescents and young adults: In adolescents, goals such as contact (getting to know people) and the perception of challenge were more prominent, whereas in young adults, health, figure/appearance, and distraction/catharsis were dominant.
Learn, Have Fun and Be Healthy! An Interview Study of Swedish Teenagers’ Views of Participation in Club Sport, opens in a new tab, Britta Thedin Jakobsson Suzanne Lundvall, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 18(13), (June 2021). In Sweden, participation in club sport is a vital part of many children’s lives. Despite this, many stop in their teenage years, raising questions concerning if and in what ways club sport can provide health-promoting activities via longer, sustained participation. The aim of this cross-sectional study is to explore and discuss young people’s views of club sport from a health-promoting perspective. The analysis draws on three sets of qualitative data: results from focus groups interviews conducted in 2007 (n = 14) and in 2016 (n = 8) as well as 18 in-depth interviews conducted 2008. Antonovsy’s salutogenic theory and his sense of coherence (SOC) model inspired the analysis. Teenagers want to be a part of club sport because of a sense of enjoyment, learning, belonging and feeling healthy. Teenagers stop when sport becomes too serious, non-flexible, time-consuming and too competitive. The urge for flexibility and possibilities to make individual decisions were emphasised in 2016. The organisation of club sport, it seems, has not adapted to changes in society and a generation of teenagers’ health interests. Club sport has the potential to be a health-promoting arena, but the focus should be on changing the club sport environment, instead of a focus on changing young people.
Barriers to adolescent female participation in cricket, opens in a new tab, J. Fowlie, R. M. Eime, K. Griffiths, Annals of Leisure Research, Volume 24(4), pp.513-531, (2021). With the ever-growing number of opportunities for females to participate in a range of sports without the previous associated gender norms, females are starting to become more involved in traditionally male-dominated sports, however, we know little about their barriers to participation. In this qualitative study, we investigated the barriers to adolescent female participation in cricket in a regional city in Victoria, Australia. The socio-ecological model was utilized to help guide semi-structured focus-group interviews with 20 adolescent females aged 10–12 years old. The participants identified the following as key barriers to their participation in cricket: lack of confidence in skills, having to play cricket with males, an absence of pathway opportunities, and no female only cricket competitions. These findings highlight the importance of adequate coaching specifically for females, female only teams and competitions, and the importance of developing a player pathway for adolescent girls.
Girls Do Not Sweat: the Development of Gender Stereotypes in Physical Education in Primary School, opens in a new tab, Carolina Cárcamo, Amparo Moreno, Cristina del Barrio, Human Arenas, Volume 4, pp.196-217, (2021). Despite efforts towards gender equality, from an early age, girls practice sport less than boys. Explaining this is paramount to psychology. Stereotypes about gender-appropriate behaviour play a key role in doing physical-sports activity. Based on the expectancy-value model, this study describes the gender beliefs of boys/girls regarding physical education. A total of 30 children (half-boys, half-girls) that were 4th- and 5th-year pupils (8–10 years) at two Colombian schools were interviewed using a semi-structured script focusing on open-ended questions. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed. The results suggest gender differences in boys/girls already in the 4th year with respect to their abilities and the value they put on physical education based on a wide range of gender stereotypes. Specifically, boys/girls see football as a men’s sport, while skating, handball and volleyball are perceived as women’s sports. Furthermore, boys/girls have a dominant gender narrative that makes femininity subordinate to masculinity, thereby encouraging binary gender beliefs and practices. These stereotypes are reflected in their choice of activities and in how they use the school facilities, educing in this way the opportunities of both boys/girls as far as physical-sports activity are concerned. We discuss the findings emphasizing their relation to education and sociocultural influences. The conclusions suggest the need to make boys and girls more aware about gender equality, make changes to the activities and to how the physical spaces are used and provide equal teaching and learning experiences to reduce a divide still present in physical-sports education.
Engaging Fathers to Increase Physical Activity in Girls: The “Dads And Daughters Exercising and Empowered” (DADEE) Randomized Controlled Trial, opens in a new tab, Philip Morgan, Myles Young, Alyce Barnes, et al., Annals of Behavioral Medicine, Volume 53(1), pp.38-52, (2019). Existing strategies to increase girls’ physical activity levels have seen limited success. Fathers may influence their children’s physical activity, but often spend more time with their sons and rarely participate in family-based programs. In a two-arm RCT, 115 fathers (29–53 years) and 153 daughters (4–12 years) were randomized to (i) the “Dads And Daughters Exercising and Empowered” (DADEE) program, or (ii) a wait-list control. The 8-week program included weekly educational and practical sessions plus home tasks. Assessments were at baseline, 2 months (postintervention), and 9 months. The primary outcomes were father–daughter physical activity levels (pedometry). Secondary outcomes included screen-time, daughters’ fundamental movement skill proficiency (FMS: perceived and objective), and fathers’ physical activity parenting practices. Primary outcome data were obtained from 88% of daughters and 90% of fathers at 9 months. Intention-to-treat analyses revealed favorable group-by-time effects for physical activity in daughters and fathers at postintervention, which were maintained at 9 months. At postintervention and follow-up, significant effects were also identified for daughters’ FMS competence, a range of fathers’ physical activity parenting practices, and screen-time for daughters and fathers. Program satisfaction and attendance were very high. This study provided the first experimental evidence that efforts to increase physical activity behavior in preadolescent girls would benefit from a meaningful engagement of fathers.
Barriers to voluntary participation in sport for children: a systematic review, opens in a new tab, Sarah Somerset, Derek J. Hoare, BMC Pediatrics, Volume 18, article 47, (2018). A total of 3434 records were identified of which 22 were suitable for inclusion in the review, two additional studies were identified from Google Scholar in November 2016. Both qualitative and quantitative studies were included. Study’s included in the review assessed children up to 18 years of age. Study quality was assessed using Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tools. Studies took place in the school environment (n = 14), sports club (n = 1), community setting (n = 8) and adolescent care setting (n = 1). Frequently reported barriers across quantitative studies were ‘time’ (n = 4), ‘cost’ (n = 3), ‘opportunity/accessibility’ (n = 3) and ‘friends’ (n = 2). Frequently reported barriers across qualitative studies were ‘time’ (n = 6), 'cost' (n = 5), 'not being good at sport' (n = 6) and ‘fear of being judged/embarrassed’ (n = 6).
Sport-specific factors predicting player retention in junior cricket, opens in a new tab, Scott Talpey, Tom Croucher, Ahmed Bani Mustafa, et al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 17(3), pp.264-270, (April 2017). Understanding factors that motivate young athletes to continue participation in sport can help key stakeholders cultivate an environment that fosters long-term participation. This investigation sought to determine the performance and participation factors that influenced continued participation in junior cricket. Administration-level data were collected each annual season across a seven-year period by a community-level junior cricket association in Australia and analysed to identify the performance and participation-based predictors of player retention. All players were males aged <16 years. Players were categorised according to whether they remained in (or departed from) the association at the end of each playing season. A multivariate logistic regression model with a stepwise variable selection was employed to identify significant independent predictors of player retention. The number of innings batted and overs bowled were significant participation-related contributors to junior cricket player retention. Performance factors such as the number of wickets taken and the number of runs scored also significantly influenced player retention. Finally, team age group, the number of previous seasons played and age were also significant factors in player retention. This demonstrates that sufficient opportunity for children to participate in the game and expression of skills competence are key factors for retention in cricket.
Sixty minutes of what? A developing brain perspective for activating children with an integrative exercise approach, opens in a new tab, Myer GD, Faigenbaum AD, Edwards NM, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 49(23), pp.1510–1516, (2015). Current recommendations for physical activity in children overlook the critical importance of motor skill acquisition early in life. Instead, they focus on the quantitative aspects of physical activity (eg, accumulate 60 min of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity) and selected health-related components of physical fitness (eg, aerobic fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility and body composition). This focus on exercise quantity in youth may limit considerations of qualitative aspects of programme design which include (1) skill development, (2) socialisation and (3) enjoyment of exercise. The timing of brain development and associated neuroplasticity for motor skill learning makes the preadolescence period a critical time to develop and reinforce fundamental movement skills in boys and girls. Children who do not participate regularly in structured motor skill-enriched activities during physical education classes or diverse youth sports programmes may never reach their genetic potential for motor skill control which underlies sustainable physical fitness later in life. The goals of this review are twofold: (1) challenge current dogma that is currently focused on the quantitative rather than qualitative aspects of physical activity recommendations for youth and (2) synthesise the latest evidence regarding the brain and motor control that will provide the foundation for integrative exercise programming that provide a framework sustainable activity for life.
Physical Literacy, Australian Sports Commission, (accessed 14 March 2023).
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