Competition
Formats and structures that meet the needs of a range of participants can help increase long-term enjoyment and participation.
While competition can be an important, and enjoyable element of sport, sport/s becoming too competitive, structured, or serious, especially as children move into more organised/traditional club-based competitions, are frequently cited as reasons why some participants stop enjoying and/or playing sport. 2, 3, 11, 18, 23, 35, 41, 61, 62, 63
Some individuals may benefit from height, weight, and strength advantages because of their physical maturity, or have more advanced skills due to social and cultural backgrounds and experiences, which can lead children and youth who are less developed or competent to feel like they can’t participate equally, enjoy the activity less, and frequently drop out. 32, 36, 64
Appropriate formats and competition structures, that meet the needs of participants at different skill and engagement levels can help to maintain enjoyment and participation in sport. 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69
Modified versions of rules, equipment, and structures can allow new participants, especially children, to experience sport in a more fun environment that encourages learning and becoming competent, rather than focussing solely on competition. 12, 32, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72
Sports, including school sport organisations, can consider adjusting age grades, competition structures, equipment, playing space, and/or rules to allow more consistent, balanced and enjoyable playing experiences. 32, 63, 64
- In 2020 researchers for the National Rugby League (NRL) examined the impact of having an expanded 18-month registration window policy that allowed players born between July and December to register in the year level immediately below their calendar grouping. This can promote ongoing participation and development for players who may be new to the game, late developers, or lack confidence. This was potentially the most successful policy trialled in the development of the Player Development Framework, with around 90% of both parents and club representatives who completed surveys agreeing that it had a positive impact on participants’ playing experiences, including increasing enjoyment, confidence, and influencing the decision to remain in rugby league. 64
- In 2019 researchers for the National Rugby League (NRL) examined the impact of ‘development competitions’, meaning that no premierships were held for those playing in the Under 12 age groups in specific areas. Development competitions can allow coaches to focus more on holistic development of all players, rather than an early specialisation approach. Feedback from parents who completed surveys found that 55% felt that the Development competitions had created a more inclusive, supportive environment with more respectful behaviours; 59% that they had provided increased involvement opportunities in games for their child; and 60% that the Development competitions had improved their child’s confidence in rugby league. However, feedback from club representatives was much more negative, with only 16% believing that the Development competitions had a positive impact on the participants playing experience. Possibly because of this although the development competitions may have been continued in some areas, no results of surveys were reported in the 2020 evaluation year. 64
- In 2018/19, the Youth Sport Trust, funded by the Sport England National Lottery, launched a pilot project to evaluate the feasibility of conducting alternative competition formats through the School Games Organiser network with the overarching aim of increasing young people’s participation in sport and physical activity. The pilot events each utilised different variations to their competition format, the most popular variation used was alternative scoring approaches. Other variations included power play, sportsmanship / values awards, selection criteria, skills focus, player rotation, alternative team format, sin bin, bio-banding and personal challenges. Through the research activities conducted several benefits have been identified for young people participating in alternative competition formats including: increased confidence, engagement, enjoyment, and participation levels, inclusive environments that allowed everyone to participate, increased skill development and quality of game play. 70
- In 2017/18 researchers examined the impact of implementing a ‘half-game rule’ (i.e. any player selected as part of a match day squad must play at least half a game or equivalent) in youth rugby. Players who “always or almost always” experienced playing at least half a game more often than other players; reported higher enjoyment, than those who played less regularly. Importantly, players who reported higher levels of enjoyment also reported greater intentions to continue playing rugby. 32
- In Norway, all sports for children up to the age of 12 are regulated with the rights of the child as an independent individual embedded into national laws and sport policy. Children must not be treated as miniature adults and children’s sport must be suitable for the children’s level of physical development and maturity. Elite sport specific specialisation before the age of 13 is prohibited, e.g. children are not allowed to participate in championships such as European or World Championships until the year they turn 13. Although this is quite different to the way in which sport is organised in countries like Australia, the United States of America (USA), and the United Kingdom (UK), Norway have shown considerable success at both participation and elite competitions. For example, approximately 90% of Norwegian young people between the ages of 6 and 12 participate in one or more sporting activities (which is approximately double the participation rate of Australian, US, or UK children). 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78
Focussing on performance and competition as the primary outcomes of sport can also make sports clubs less likely to welcome or actively engage people with diverse backgrounds and abilities, and to resist inclusion policies or practices as ‘too difficult’, ‘not core business’, and anti-competitive success. 62, 79
Instead, recognising and adjusting sport competition structures to meet the requirements of diverse participants can play an important role in engaging, and maintaining, participation in sport, which benefits both organisations (increasing sustainability) and participants (improving lifetime health and wellbeing). 32, 63, 65, 70
Resources and reading
- Culture of competition discourages some kids from sport, opens in a new tab, Victoria University media release, (6 May 2019). A study of Aussie sports clubs finds that a culture of competitiveness is preventing kids from diverse backgrounds and abilities from participating in junior sport. The research also showed that many clubs were uncertain about the concept and how it related to them, or how to actively promote diversity and social inclusion. Some other key findings included: Diversity was often viewed as diverting resources from a club’s core business, which revolved around organising teams and improving playing skills; Clubs that actively promoted diversity were generally regarded by coaches and parents from outside clubs as not serious clubs, and suitable only for children who were ‘no good’ at sport; Men at clubs that focused on competition above participation were, on average, more likely to be homophobic, endorse stricter gender roles, enforce violence as a natural masculine trait, and were less likely to hold pro-disability attitudes.
- Let the children play – Norway’s golden approach reminds us of what matters in sport, opens in a new tab, Joy Poon and Samantha Yom, Red Sports, (23 May 2018). Provides an overview contrasting the junior athlete pathways in Norway and Singapore. Emphasises Norway's success, particularly in Winter Olympic sports, and focus on broad non-competitive sport for juniors to Singapore's more competitive and early specialisation model.
- Girls playing in boys' teams, opens in a new tab, (accessed 25 January 2022). The Play by the Rules website has a number of information resources that explain anti-discrimination legislation and how it relates to girls playing in boys' teams and practical issues for coaches and administrators to consider.
- Children's Rights and Sports, opens in a new tab, Project Play, (2021). Written with the aid of human rights and sports policy experts over the past year, the resource is designed to help leaders – from program operators to policymakers – grow access to sports while establishing minimum conditions under which youth are served. The Children's Bill of Rights in Sports identifies eight rights: To play sports; To safe and healthy environments.; To qualified program leaders; To developmentally appropriate play; To share in the planning and delivery of their activities; To an equal opportunity for personal growth; To be treated with dignity; To enjoy themselves.
- Mixed Gender Dispensation Procedure, opens in a new tab, Australian Rugby, (accessed 25 January 2022). Rugby Australia has created this procedure to ensure the suitability of mixed gender teams and the circumstances where girls should be permitted to play contact Rugby with boys. It takes into consideration the differences in physical and mental development of boys and girls at the various stages of progression through the established age-grade pathways within Australia. Males and females can participate in mixed gender rugby up to and including the calendar year in which they turn 12 years of age. A girl over 12 years of age may, subject to meeting the requirements of the dispensation procedure, play in a mixed gender team in the Under 13, Under 14 and Under 15 age groups where no other opportunity to play regular Rugby exists. A girl can participate in a mixed gender team in the calendar year up to and including the year in which they turn 15 (1 January to 31 December).
- Evaluation of Alternative Competition Formats, opens in a new tab, Youth Sport Trust, (March 2019). In 2018/19, the Youth Sport Trust, funded by the Sport England National Lottery, launched a pilot project to evaluate the feasibility of conducting alternative competition formats through the School Games Organiser network with the overarching aim of increasing young people’s participation in sport and physical activity. The pilot events each utilised different variations to their competition format, the most popular variation used was alternative scoring approaches. Other variations included power play, sportsmanship / values awards, selection criteria, skills focus, player rotation, alternative team format, sin bin, bio-banding and personal challenges. Through the research activities conducted several benefits have been identified for young people participating in alternative competition formats.
- Increased participation in sport and physical activity
- Increased engagement and enjoyment
- Inclusive atmosphere with increased participation for all
- Increased sportsmanship and teamwork
- Increased skill development and quality of game play
- Increased opportunity to think strategically and tactically
- Increased sense of achievement
- Increased confidence to participate in sport and physical activity
- Promotes participation across those young people who might not have actively participated previously
- Provides the opportunity for young people to undertake leadership roles
- Secondary Age Review, opens in a new tab, Sport New Zealand, (March 2019). This research looks into secondary school aged young people’s participation in sport and active recreation, and current and future enablers and barriers to this participation. The Secondary Age Review was conducted in response to the Active NZ survey (2017) and concerns that the changing participation needs of 12–17-year-olds in Aotearoa are not being met by today’s sport and active recreation offering. Key insights include:
- Our Active NZ Survey (2017) also clarifies that although some activities may be traditionally viewed as sport, many participants view their engagement with them as non-competitive. For example, across the whole young people age range (5-18-years) only 30% viewed their participation in football as competitive, 26% in basketball, 50% in netball and 42% in rugby.
- Sport4Me: A people focused approach to engaging Australians in sport, opens in a new tab, Rochelle Eime, Hans Westerbeek, Shane Pill, et al., Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 4, (January 2023). The traditional model of community club-based sport is fine for those, particularly children and youth, who enjoy the competitive focus and have the skills and commitment to play. But societal preferences during leisure time have changed dramatically over recent decades. However, sport organisations have made limited progress in response to these changes in providing ways in which children and youth can participate outside the traditional competitive structures and environments. In this paper the context of community club-based structures is reviewed leading into an assessment of the associated impact of these structures on sport participation. Children and youth's current motivations to play sport including what makes sport fun to play, are considered. It is then demonstrated that the associations between motivations to play sport and the factors that contribute to fun and enjoyment, are often misaligned for many individuals, with a primary focus on competition-based structures to deliver community club sport. In the final part of the paper a model for community sport organisations where people are put first is proposed - Sport4Me. Sport4Me is about flexible, inclusive, equitable sporting opportunities that focus on friends, fun, physical literacy and play. The model would complement the traditional competitive club-based model and afford participants more choice whilst fostering an environment that promotes lifelong involvement in sport. This model will require structural and cultural changes to the sporting environment and include coaching practices. Sport4Me is an evidence-based model, but it is not radical in its conceptualisation but rather, builds on previously proposed approaches, considers the needs and wants of potential sport participants and widens the scope of sport delivery.
- Developing participation opportunities for young people with disabilities? Policy enactment and social inclusion in Australian junior sport, opens in a new tab, Ruth Jeanes, Ramón Spaaij, Jonathan Magee, et al., in 'The Potential of Community Sport for Social Inclusion: Exploring Cases Across the Globe', Hebe Schaillée, Reinhard Haudenhuyse, Lieve Bradt (eds.), Routledge, (2022). Interventions aimed at increasing the participation of young people with disabilities in recreational sport have had mixed success. The authors draw on in-depth interviews with representatives from State Sporting Associations, local government officers and volunteers within community sports clubs in Victoria, Australia, to examine why some sports clubs are unable or unwilling to translate policy ambitions into practice. The findings indicate how by framing disability provision as ‘too difficult’, ‘not core business’ and antithetical to competitive success, community sports clubs are able to resist policy ambitions to modify existing structures and develop more inclusive practice. Greater priority needs to be given to transformational inclusion objectives and challenging ableism if clubs are to structurally progress the development of participation opportunities for young people with disabilities.
- The Sport Participation Pathway Model (SPPM): a conceptual model for participation and retention in community sport, opens in a new tab, Rochelle Eime, Melanie Charity, Hans Westerbeek, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 14(2), pp.291-304, (2022). The aim of this study is to review sport participation trends, including new data on retention and drop-out across age groups in community club-based sport, and combine this data with evidence from literature about people moving in and out of sport, to develop the Sport Participation Pathway Model (SPPM), which provides a holistic view of sport participation. We conducted a 3-year analysis of sport participation for eight major sports from 2015–2017 for children and young people aged 4–29 years. The total number of participants was 579,696. Only half 50.8% played continuously for the three years, 44.7% dropped out, and 4.5% played discontinuously. Drop-out was highest for those aged 4 (57.0%), and lowest for those aged 10–14 years (39.3%). The SPPM demonstrates the movements of participation in sport and the drop-out at various stages out of competitive club-based sport and for those who are the main participants. The model is a standalone sport participation model that is a representation and integration of empirical sport participation. This model therefore is most useful for sports organisations to recognise issues around retention and drop-out. In developing sport policies, government can also use the model to make decisions on target groups and funding support.
- Classification in sport: A question of fairness, opens in a new tab, Sigmund Loland, European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 21(11), pp.1477-1484, (June 2021). Competitor classification schemes have been a part of sport since its origins. Eligibility criteria have developed towards inclusion and increasing diversity. The pool of competitors has expanded from the ancient Olympic Games, eligible only to free Greek men, via nineteenth-century English sport favouring primarily the upper class of so-called gentlemen amateurs, to the current global and diverse pool of men, women, children, and able-bodied as well as disabled persons. Hence, the challenge of sound classification schemes has increased. This article examines the principles of fair classification of athletes. With the help of normative theory as well as practical examples, a fair equality of opportunity principle for sport (FEOPs) is formulated. It is demonstrated how sound classification schemes combine the normative backing from FEOPs with relevant scientific insights. Current classification challenges and possibilities for change are discussed. It is suggested that in several sports, biological sex classes can be abandoned, and that in some sports, sex classes can be replaced by body size classes. It is argued, too, that sports in which body height exerts a significant and systematic impact on performance should classify accordingly.
- ‘‘It’s not like she’s from another planet’: Undoing gender/redoing policy in mixed football’, opens in a new tab, Hills, L.A., Maitland, A., Croston, A., et al., International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 56(5), pp.658-676, (2021). Competitive sport is often a gender-segregated activity underpinned by binary thinking that associates sporting talent with masculinity. In response to political, internal and grassroots activism, the English Football Association conducted a series of pilots to ascertain whether they should raise the age limit for competitive mixed football from Under-11 to Under-14. This paper presents an analysis of these trials using the concepts of accountability, doing and undoing gender to explore participants’ support for policy change, and the ways that normative notions of gender were negotiated, reproduced and disrupted during the trials. Typical rationale for segregating sports which constitute gender accountability frameworks such as physical differences between boys and girls, perceived differences in ability, and concerns about risk of injury for girls were undone as girls demonstrated they could make the team, enjoy the experience and develop their skills in a safe environment. Key arguments in favour of mixed football included the benefit to female players, the importance of friendships between boys and girls, and the similarities in boys’ and girls’ footballing skills. Support for mixed football and policy change reflected participants’ expectations that girls should be assessed on their capacity to play football and ‘fit in’ rather than expectations of gender difference. This article contributes to the limited research on mixed competitive youth sport and provides unique insights into gender-based policy change.
- Participation-performance tension and gender affect recreational sports clubs’ engagement with children and young people with diverse backgrounds and abilities, opens in a new tab, Ramón Spaaij , Dean Lusher, Ruth Jeanes, et.al., PLOS One, (April 2019). Sport participation has been shown to be associated with health and social benefits. However, there are persisting inequities and barriers to sport participation that can prevent children and young people with diverse backgrounds and abilities from accessing these benefits. This mixed methods study investigated how diversity is understood, experienced and managed in junior sport. The study combined in-depth interviews (n = 101), surveys (n = 450) and observations over a three-year period. The results revealed that a focus on performance and competitiveness negatively affected junior sports clubs’ commitment to diversity and inclusive participation. Gender and a range of attitudes about diversity were also strongly related. On average, we found that those who identified as men were more likely to support a pro-performance stance, be homophobic, endorse stricter gender roles, and endorse violence as a natural masculine trait. In addition, those who identified as men were less likely to hold pro-disability attitudes. These findings suggest that the participation-performance tension and gender affect to what extent, and how, sports clubs engage children and young people with diverse backgrounds and abilities.
- Sport-specific factors predicting player retention in junior cricket, opens in a new tab, Scott Talpey, Tom Croucher, Ahmed Bani Mustafa, et al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 17(3), pp.264-270, (April 2017). Understanding factors that motivate young athletes to continue participation in sport can help key stakeholders cultivate an environment that fosters long-term participation. This investigation sought to determine the performance and participation factors that influenced continued participation in junior cricket. Administration-level data were collected each annual season across a seven-year period by a community-level junior cricket association in Australia and analysed to identify the performance and participation-based predictors of player retention. All players were males aged <16 years. Players were categorised according to whether they remained in (or departed from) the association at the end of each playing season. A multivariate logistic regression model with a stepwise variable selection was employed to identify significant independent predictors of player retention. The number of innings batted and overs bowled were significant participation-related contributors to junior cricket player retention. Performance factors such as the number of wickets taken and the number of runs scored also significantly influenced player retention. Finally, team age group, the number of previous seasons played and age were also significant factors in player retention. This demonstrates that sufficient opportunity for children to participate in the game and expression of skills competence are key factors for retention in cricket.
- The impact of modified rules on involvement and psychosocial influences on AFL junior football players, opens in a new tab, H. Brownlow, P. Phillips, K. Encel, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 20(Supp1), E121, (January 2017). The use of modified rules increases involvement and is associated with perceptions of enjoyment and competence. Through increasing involvement, modified rules can facilitate more participants to have more opportunity to develop their skills and keep them in the sport for longer through the impact that it has on perceptions of competence and enjoyment. Adults who deliver and support participation in modified rules programs need to be educated and informed of their efficacy.
- The effect of equipment scaling on children’s sport performance: the case for tennis, opens in a new tab, Timmerman E, de Water J, Kachel K, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 33(10), pp.1093-1100, (2015). This study examined the influence of scaling court-size and net height on children’s tennis performance. The results of this study showed that children hit more winners, more forced errors, played more volleys, struck more shots from a comfortable height and played in a more forward court position when the net was scaled. In addition, scaling both the court and net lead to a faster children’s game, more closely approximating what is typical in an adult game. Further, children enjoyed playing on the scaled court and modified net condition more than standard adult conditions. The authors suggest that optimising the scaling of net height may be as critical as other task constraints, such as racquet length or court-size, as it leads to a more engaging learning environment for children.
- The Fun Integration Theory: Towards Sustaining Children and Adolescents Sport Participation, opens in a new tab, Amanda Visek, Sara Achrati, Heather Manning, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 12(3), pp.424-433, (2015). Working with youth soccer players (n = 142), coaches (n = 37), and parents (n = 57) identified 11 fun-dimensions (Being a Good Sport, Trying Hard, Positive Coaching, Learning and Improving, Game Time Support, Games, Practices, Team Friendships, Mental Bonuses, Team Rituals, Swag) and 81 specific fun-determinants. The top 10 determinants of fun were Trying your best, When a coach treats players with respect, playing well together as a team, getting playing time, getting along with your teammates, Exercising and being active, working hard, when a coach encourages the team, having a coach who is a positive role model, playing well during a game, Keeping a positive attitude. ‘Competition’ was number 21; ‘winning’ was number 48.
- Participation in modified sports programs: A longitudinal study of children’s transition to club sport competition, opens in a new tab, Eime R, Casey M, Harvey J, et.al., BMC Public Health, Volume 15, (2015). Modified sport programs are designed as an introduction to sport for young children and provide an opportunity to engage in physical activity for health benefit. This longitudinal study identified trends in participation among children aged 4–12 years. The study explored the different outcomes; including continuation in the modified sports program, withdrawal from the program; or transition to club sport competition. Many of the participants who took part in modified sports programs, especially males, were very young (aged 4–6 years). The results of this study indicated that more children withdrew from their modified sport program rather than transitioning to club competition in that sport. Across all age groups, fewer than 25 % of females (n = 18,652) and fewer than 14 % of males (n = 18,058) transitioned from a modified sports program to a club sport competition within a 4-year period. Very few children continued their participation in a modified sports program for the full 4-year period of the study; two-thirds of those who withdrew did so after the first year. There were also age differences between when boys and girls started, withdrew, and transitioned from the modified sports programs. This study had a number of limitations, it was limited to only three Australian sports, albeit popular ones, and cannot necessarily be generalised to sports in general. Two of the three sports were dominated by males and one by females, although this imbalance did not limit the ability to identify sex differences in the patterns of participation. The results of this study suggest that there is a need for better links between modified programs and club sport competition programs if continuity of participation in a particular sport is to be maintained as children age. The inclusion of an intermediate program within the sport participation pathway, between modified sport and club sport competitions, may assist continuation of participation in a given sport.
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