Program design

Some elements have been identified as being more likely to lead to successful programs for children and youth.
The needs and abilities of children, including their skill, strength, and cognitive ability to make decisions during play or interpret rules, are different from adults and standard rules and equipment may not be suitable for child participants. 68, 72, 73, 80, 81, 82
Physical, psychological, and cognitive capabilities, barriers, and motivators can change rapidly as young people grow and develop, and are impacted by other factors, such as gender, cultural background, sexuality, socio-economic status, geographic location, exposure to sport/s, and more. 2, 10, 83, 84
When planning and delivering programs and activities it is important to consider how different factors, needs, preferences, barriers, and motivators can be addressed to meet the desired outcome of (e.g. increasing sport participation). 13, 35, 63, 65, 83, 84, 85, 86
Suggestions for practice
Some elements that have been identified as being more likely to lead to successful programs for children and youth include:

Engaging young people in developing programs and goals, including having a say in chosen activities. 2, 3, 8, 17, 24, 29, 44, 66, 80, 87, 88, 89
Single-sex competitions, activities, or PE classes (especially for females). 13, 17, 26, 29, 37, 85
Being able to play with friends or familiar people. 2, 13, 29, 31, 63
Allowing people to participate with those of similar ability (while often highlighted for those who feel less competent – to reduce judgement and discomfort – this can also include allowing more competitive girls to play in boys competitions when there are otherwise limited pathway/development opportunities). 13, 29
Increasing opportunities to participate (including pathway opportunities and chances to try different sports). 2, 12, 13, 21, 23, 26, 29, 37, 38, 46, 85, 88
Providing welcoming, fun, and inclusive environments, including coaches/instructors who support participants at all levels of ability and engagement. 2, 13, 29, 35, 47, 63, 66, 85, 88, 90
More customised participation opportunities that can accommodate life changes (e.g. increased school or after-school responsibilities), are easy to access, and more flexible about opting in/out. 2, 11, 12, 44, 63
Age, development, and skill appropriate modifications, including scaling of equipment, match duration, rules, etc. 67, 68, 69, 71, 82, 90, 91, 92, 93
Balancing competition and play, with a focus on intrinsic motivations such as fun and self-development, improvement, or achievement, rather than just ‘winning’ as the goal. 35, 44, 63, 67, 81, 90
Consider an ‘intermediate’ program, bridging the participation pathway between modified sports for young children and club sport competitions. 68, 94
Implement strategies and mechanisms to receive and address feedback. 89, 95
Resources and reading
Providing positive experiences for young people: ideas for physical activity provider, opens in a new tab, Sport England, (2021). This learning is based on Sport England’s satellite clubs programme in collaboration with a small group of Active Partnerships. Recommendations: Start with the young people; Constantly reflect and re-evaluate; Ensure young people feel safe, comfortable and heard; Connect young people outside sessions; Incorporate physical activity into other interests; Deploy role models that are just like them; Understand and deliver what your young people want; Build trust and rapport at all levels.
Children's Rights and Sports, opens in a new tab, Project Play, (2021). Written with the aid of human rights and sports policy experts over the past year, the resource is designed to help leaders – from program operators to policymakers – grow access to sports while establishing minimum conditions under which youth are served. The Children's Bill of Rights in Sports identifies eight rights: To play sports; To safe and healthy environments.; To qualified program leaders; To developmentally appropriate play; To share in the planning and delivery of their activities; To an equal opportunity for personal growth; To be treated with dignity; To enjoy themselves.
Breaking Barriers: Supporting Disabled Teenage Girls to be Active Research, opens in a new tab, Access Sport, (May 2024). The unique experiences of disabled teenage girls can be lost when viewed through research focused solely on girls or disabled young people. The goal of this research was to understand their experiences so that we can create engaging sport and exercise offers that work for them. The research used surveys and focus groups with teenage girls in the UK, aged 11-19 years, who had a disability or impairment; a long-term health condition; and/or a neurodiverse condition, to explore disabled teenage girls’ experiences, attitudes and barriers towards sport and exercise. Some key findings included: Disabled teenage girls are frustrated by the lack of suitable opportunities outside of school and struggle to enjoy sport in school, making provision outside school even more important.
Only 41% of disabled teenage girls enjoy PE and just 39% feel comfortable joining in sport and exercise at school or college. This is a concern as we know PE and school sport can be foundational in shaping young people’s relationships with being active.
Disabled teenage girls face the same barriers to sport and exercise as non-disabled teenage girls, but there are additional complex barriers that mean many feel excluded from sport.
Girls-only opportunities help girls find joy in sport and, for disabled teenage girls, participating with other disabled girls is important.
Coaches and instructors need to understand the support needs of disabled teenage girls to prevent girls from having a negative experience or being excluded all together.
Disabled teenage girls want to take part in a judgement-free environment where fun is prioritised, and coaches, volunteers and teachers play an important role in creating this environment for them.
Girls Active National Reports 2024, opens in a new tab, Youth Sports Trust, (2024). The Youth Sport Trust have been conducting a Girls Active Survey since 2016, finding out what the barriers, motivations and perceptions are for UK girls in PE, physical activity and sport, both in and outside of school and how these differ to boys. In 2024 over 15,000 young people took part in the survey. Some of this year’s key results: When asked who they would prefer to teach their PE and sport at school, secondary school girls were most likely to say A female teacher/coach, followed by I don’t mind, and A male teacher/coach. When including all ages/grades girls either 'didn't mind' (53%), would prefer a female teacher/coach (43%), or would prefer a male teacher or coach (4%). 63% of boys didn't mind if their PE/sport teacher was male or female, although 32% would prefer a male teacher, and 4% a female teacher.
53% of girls and 64% of boys would like to have a say in the activities we do in PE and after school clubs.
Boys were more likely to agree that they like competitive PE lessons (71% compared to 50% of girls)
Both girls and boys reported preferring single sport groups for sport, physical activity and physical education. Girls: 66% girls only; 20% don't mind, 14% mixed; Boys: 61% boys only, 26% don't mind, 12% mixed.
BMX for Life: Summary of findings - participation, opens in a new tab, Dave Camilleri, Richard Sallis, Ruth Williams, University of Melbourne, (2024). The BMX for Life research project delves into the potential of BMX riding to address social isolation and promote positive youth development. Through surveys and interviews, the project explores the interplay between BMX riding, creativity, and mental wellbeing, with a particular focus on dirt jump construction and riding. The BMX for Life project uncovers the ways in which BMX riders harness creativity, develop social and emotional learning (SEL) skills, and bolster mental wellbeing through their engagement with the sport. This summary reveals insights into how people participate in BMX riding in Australia. By understanding how and why people ride BMX, we can start to connect the dots between BMX riding, mental health, and creativity. Around one third of survey participants could be defined as youth, with several sections of the report including data frequently reported for respondents aged 15-29 years. BMX riding is particularly popular among younger demographics. By ensuring that riding spots are conveniently located within communities, councils can engage youth in positive recreational activities, potentially diverting them from less desirable behaviours and providing them with opportunities for skill development and personal growth. Appropriately designed riding spots provide youth with a positive outlet for their energy and creativity. By investing in facilities that cater to young riders’ interests and passions, councils can promote youth development, resilience, and leadership skills within the community.
Daring to Dream: The Gender Dream Deficit in Sport, opens in a new tab, Women in Sport, (December 2023). The 2023 Women’s World Cup had a positive impact on girls in the UK who watched with 9 in 10 saying it made them feel proud and happy. But despite the increased visibility and success of women’s sport, a very significant dream deficit persists between girls and boys. Girls who love sport and take part a lot now have heroes and can dream of reaching the top, but this group makes up just 19% of all girls. The top three things that would encourage girls and boys to get more involved in sport are very similar between genders: more opportunities to try lots of different sports at a young age; more opportunities to join clubs and teams outside school; more opportunities to play different sports at school; but, girls were much more likely to want more single sex (i.e. girls only) opportunities to take part (24% compared to 6% of boys wanting more boys only opportunities).
Sport, Stereotypes and Stolen Dreams: Why girls still feel they don’t belong in sport, opens in a new tab, Women in Sport, (March 2023). Funded by Sport England this research project conducted in depth work with 24 families who have daughters and ran two nationally representative surveys over 2,000 parents of girls and boys aged 5-11 years old. We explored girls’ early experiences of sport and physical activity and the attitudes and influences that shape perceptions at this young age. Girls’ enjoyment and motivation in sport centred around four key elements: personal achievement; a feeling of belonging and familiarity; seeing others like them taking part; and experiencing that feel-good factor and freedom sport and exercise elicit.
What do we need to do to give girls a more positive start? Surround girls with the expectation that they will succeed; Build girls’ skills early so there’s a level playing field; Don’t ‘dumb it down’ for girls; Provide more opportunities for young girls; Harness the school and after school environment.
Asian Girls Insight Research: Barclays Girls' Football School Partnership by England Football, opens in a new tab, Youth Sport Trust, (August 2021). There is currently a lack of Asian girls accessing both participation and leadership opportunities through football. This research formed part of the work funded by The Football Association to provide a better understanding of the specific demographic of Asian girls. It was an insight piece of work, using a sample of the target population. The 39 Asian female participants were a mixture of girls engaged with and not engaged with sport, football and physical activity, from Years 8 to 10 (ages 12-15). Clothing was another emerging theme from the focus groups. This theme was really important to the girls for three reasons: personal, religious and cultural.
Understanding, and listening to the needs of Asian girls was highlighted by the girls as the one of the most important aspects.
Fear of judgement was noted by many girls and so could be regarded as a main theme of the focus groups.
Participating in sport with those of the same ability, was another factor highlighted by the girls in the focus groups. It could be suggested that this factor relates to their feelings of being judged by others, as if they are in a group with those of the same ability, others are less likely to judge them if they do something wrong or do not perform in a certain way.
One of those needs is ensuring the space used is private so boys cannot watch them participating in sport. A lot of the girls felt judged by boys, as they laugh if girls make a mistake and tell girls that boys are more skilled at sport than them. Therefore, having a girls-only private space would allow girls to feel comfortable and be themselves which encourages them to participate in sport.
Some felt that having a female coach was important as again this would ensure the space was female-only. Ideally, girls would like the coach to be a teacher, as they felt like some students do not take the session seriously if it was led by their peers and their male peers sometimes make comments about the girls’ participation in sport.
In regards to PE and other sports clubs, girls suggested they would like to be given a variety of sports that they could chose to participate in, including ones that they have not tried before as well as activities that they already enjoy.
Girls acknowledged that they would be much more likely to participate if they were with people they know and liked and playing with people they did not know was perceived a barrier. Girls are more likely to feel comfortable and have a more enjoyable experience with their friends. A few girls described that when their friends stopped playing, they were then more likely to stop playing.
Life-stages-resource.pdf, Australian Sports Commission, (2020). Exploring each life stage in detail allows organisations to understand the physical activity levels and behaviours of each age group and target their participation offerings accordingly. It’s also important to understand that sports and clubs don’t need to have an offer for every age group. It’s often more effective to target life stages or market segments when launching a new product or modifying an existing participation experience. Life stages include children (5-11 and 12-14 years), youth (15-17 years), young adults (18-24 and 25-34 years), adults (18-34 years), and older adults (aged 55 years and over).
Player Development Framework: Implementation report, opens in a new tab, National Rugby League (NRL), (2020). Includes both the 2019 Test Regions Report and the 2020 Results Report. The findings of these reports, illustrate the positive impact the framework can have on participant experiences when applied in its entirety.
Secondary Age Review, opens in a new tab, Sport New Zealand, (March 2019). This research looks into secondary school aged young people’s participation in sport and active recreation, and current and future enablers and barriers to this participation. The Secondary Age Review was conducted in response to the Active NZ survey (2017) and concerns that the changing participation needs of 12–17-year-olds in Aotearoa are not being met by today’s sport and active recreation offering. Key insights include: Our Active NZ Survey (2017) also clarifies that although some activities may be traditionally viewed as sport, many participants view their engagement with them as non-competitive. For example, across the whole young people age range (5-18-years) only 30% viewed their participation in football as competitive, 26% in basketball, 50% in netball and 42% in rugby.
Supply can also present a barrier to participation – this is particularly evident in low decile, high deprivation areas, and geographically isolated communities. These communities typically do not have access to a wide variety of sport and activity providers, sport and recreation facilities or equipment. Logistical barriers such as a lack of transport options, events and activities that are on at the ‘wrong’ time and financial constraints also present significant challenges.
Sport NZ’s Voice of Participant survey (VoP) showed relatively higher disaffection than other age cohorts with the club experience among young people in selected sports. They were particularly dissatisfied with the registration process and were less likely than other age groups to recommend the club to others. Girls, in particular, are less satisfied than boys, particularly in the areas of fairness, facilities and inclusiveness.
Secondary-aged young people are more likely to join a community club for competition, seek improved coaching through that environment and to have been injured in the past 12 months, when compared with other age cohorts.
Young people are increasingly seeking a customised, personalised experience in sport and active recreation. The provision of opportunities needs to accommodate workloads at school (increasing), the need to remain connected to (and develop new) peer groups, after-school responsibilities, and to provide a positive, reinforcing experience from their involvement. The ability and tendency to opt in and out of activity depending on the ‘fit’ with young people’s lives has implications for the current sport delivery model.
A snapshot of the PLAYCE project: Findings from the Western Australian PLAY Spaces and Environments for Children’s Physical Activity Study. Supportive Childcare Environments for Physical Activity in the Early Years, opens in a new tab, Christian, H., Rosenberg, M., Trost, S., et al., University of Western Australia, (2018). The aim of this research was to provide information on how physically active WA pre-schoolers are on average and whilst attending Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC). The research also sought to understand the influence of the ECEC physical and policy environment and educator practices on pre-schooler physical activity levels. 104 ECEC services and 1596 children and their families in the Perth metropolitan area took part in the study. Key findings include: Around one-third of children 2-5 years met the recommended three hours of physical activity per day, and 87% of pre-schoolers met the recommended one hour of ‘energetic play’ per day.
On average, toddlers did 150 minutes (2hrs 30mins) of physical activity per day, and pre-schoolers did 174 minutes (2hrs 54mins) per day.
Boys did more physical activity than girls, with twice as many boys than girls meeting the daily physical activity recommendations, and boys completing an average of 20 minutes more physical activity per day than girls.
Only 16% of centres had a written physical activity policy. Just over a third of centres allocated enough time for daily physical activity that would allow children to meet the recommended 180 minutes of physical activity per day. Most (85%) centres restricted screen based sedentary activities to less than thirty minutes per day. 15% of centres provided 30-59 minutes of interactive screen time per day.
34896_Youth_participation_project-full_report_acc2.pdf, Australian Sports Commission and La Trobe University, (November 2017). The Australian Sports Commission (ASC) partnered with La Trobe University’s Centre for Sport and Social Impact to conduct a research pilot involving secondary schools and sport sector partners to evaluate, measure and report on the impact of interventions. The findings build upon existing global research to provide a better understanding of what is successful in the Australian school context. The research identified: the groups of disengaged students, who they are, their barriers and motivations; the value of the sport-in-school relationship and how to build it; and strategies to enhance engagement through program delivery, deliverer and design. The research also collated: 10 Recommended development areas for sporting organisations currently delivering in secondary schools; and 14 Program design and delivery principles for creating new secondary school sport programs.
National Junior Rugby League Players' Experiences: Players’ experiences and the impact on retention rates, opens in a new tab, Dr Wayne Usher, Griffith University for the National Rugby League (NRL), (2017). A mixed method (quantitative and qualitative) approach was employed to investigate possible associations between all four experiences. The survey provided Junior players, who returned to play in the 2017 RL season, with the opportunity to record and voice their ‘lived experience’. Findings from this study provide a comprehensive ‘snapshot’ of the current Junior RL landscape, presenting useful findings pertaining to players’ experiences (2017). A summary of results and potential recommendations are presented throughout this report, with the aim to draw attention to some of the more important patterns of associations between the four measurable experiences (coaching, player, club and socialisation). On the basis of these findings, it is recommended that a number of current processes and practices, undertaken by the NRL, require modification or prioritising, to assist with minimising and/or eliminating the various factors that have been identified by Junior participants as points of affect.
Investigating motives that influence Australia’s Rugby League retention rates: Players’ experiences and the impact on retention rates, opens in a new tab, Dr Wayne Usher, Griffith University for the National Rugby League (NRL), (2017). This report presents findings from individual groups (Junior and Senior), combined (Junior and Senior) and individual governing bodies (i.e., NSWRL, NSWCRL, QRL and Affiliated States). Such a thorough approach has provided a burden of evidence, concerning elements of the RL culture, which impact and influence player retention motivations. It is also important to note, that whilst there are a number of immediate strategies RL can commence with to address retention motivations, there are certain facets of the game and data findings that will be out of the control and reach of the sport (i.e., individual player transitional life phases— relocations, heightened and fluctuating study, work and family commitments). Subsequently, from the findings, this report provides eleven recommendations that the NRL may give consideration to, in an attempt to address the identified areas of concern. When asked to use one of 10 categories to indicate why they did not return to RL in 2017, junior participants were most likely to report a negative experience (25%), injury, fear of injury or illness (15%), losing interest in playing (13%) joining another sporting club (11%) or other commitments (10.4%). Beyond this, participants reported other reasons, evenly distributed, across relocating and not being able to play with friends. (p.33)
Junior players agreed most strongly around ‘player selection was not fair’, felt that their ‘contribution was not valued’ and ‘low levels of fun’. These were the top three negative experiences which influenced their decision to not return to play in 2017. (p.37)
Under the skin Understanding youth personalities to help young people get active, opens in a new tab, Sport England, (2016). We delved deeper into the lives of 1,997 young people aged between 14 and 25. We explored their hobbies and habits, friends and families, beliefs, ambitions and fears. We also built up a picture of their physical activity – how active they are, the sports and exercise they do and their attitudes to being active. Going beyond the lens of sport gave us a much clearer understanding of the different personality types of young people in England today. When we analysed the data we’d collected, we were able to define six broad groups of young people. These groups are primarily based on life motivations and attitudes, but were also influenced by how engaged they are in sport and basic demographics (age, gender and education). Our Youth Insight work was valuable, but we knew we could do more. We felt sure connecting our understanding of young people’s lifestyles with their relationship with sport would help our partners get even more young people active. As with any categorisation, these groups are unlikely to represent a single young person exactly. While each young person will fit one category best, some might display characteristics which overlap several different groups. It’s important to see each group as a broad overview of a personality type.
Sport for All, Play for Life: A playbook to get every kid in the game, opens in a new tab, Aspen Institute Project Play, (2015). Over two years Project Play convened more than 250 thought leaders in a series of roundtables, identifying strategies that can address barriers limiting access to early sport activity that fosters the development of healthy children and communities. This report aggregates the eight most promising strategies: Ask kids what they want; Reintroduce free play; Encourage sport sampling; Revitalize i-town leagues; Think small; Design for development; Train all coaches; Emphasize prevention.
To investigate innovative and inclusive retention strategies for youth participants in community sport, opens in a new tab, Troy Kirkham, Winston Churchill Memorial Trust of Australia, (2015). A key aspect of this Churchill Fellowship was exploring examples of best practice in youth retention across the world in order to ensure that community sport in Australia continues to provide access & opportunity for youth participants. Children identify that the primary reason that they participate in sport is to have fun with their friends. However, adults and sporting organisations introduce a number of barriers into a child’s sporting environment or context that contradict their main reason for participation, and subsequently children drop out of sport at an alarming rate. There is certainly no easy fix when it comes to youth retention in sport, and there are a wide-ranging number of factors that play a role in achieving this desired outcome. Sports organisations have often looked to solve the issue of youth retention by looking at parts of the issue in isolation, rather than looking to address the components as a whole, and subsequently this doesn’t fully address the myriad of influencing factors, and ultimately does not achieve a successful outcome. As an example sporting organisations may look at the important role that the coach plays in youth retention, but when approached or addressed in isolation, it won’t achieve the anticipated outcome of successful retention. The proposed interconnected model looks to focus on the fundamental factors impacting youth retention whilst addressing key elements of each. The nine components are: Fun – understanding what fun is to kids and how this impacts on their sport.
Play – the difference between structured and unstructured play / sport and how this impacts a child’s experience and longer term development.
Participant Motivation – a focus on intrinsic and extrinsic locus of control, and other theories of motivation and how these impact on a participants decision to stay involved in sport or drop out.
The Participant – focusing on youth advocacy and ownership of the experience, whilst also including aspects such as the development of physical literacy, the notion of sport sampling versus specialisation and the impact of injury.
The Coach – the coach is central in regards to player retention and this component focuses on coach education and associated follow up, an athlete centred coaching approach and the importance of an inclusive and safe approach to the game whilst understanding the “bigger picture” outcomes of youth sport.
The Parent – parent education in sport is a must in order for them to understand the critical role that they play in terms of retention and a lifelong love for physical activity.
The Structure of Sport – organised sport needs to fully understand the often unintended consequences of their decisions in regards to a sport structure including aspects such as models of participation, season length, competition format, alternative products, the community club environment, multi sport clubs and the importance of research, data and insight to inform decision making processes.
Talent Development – focus upon the philosophy of talent development and the distinction between selecting for ability or talent identification including the selection / de-selection processes, the quality of programs and the structural format of development programming.
Opportunity and Access – for all players, of all abilities and ensuring that the environment is a place where participants want to be. This also includes the role that Governments can play in enabling access and opportunity.
Youth Insights Pack: The challenge of growing youth participation in sport, opens in a new tab, Sport England, (August 2014). The result of our recent research is this pack of insights, which is divided into sections to break down the material into more manageable chunks: The first section provides an overview of life as a 14-25 year old today to set the context for their relationship with sport. This includes the challenges of growing up in a recession, the changes that young people go through, the role of their peers and the importance of technology in their lives. The second section introduces and explores what we have learned about young people’s attitudes towards sport and the relationship these have to their behaviours. It concludes we need to take action to break the norm if we are to increase youth participation. The third section explores in more depth the characteristics of three key audiences; young people who are positive about sport but mostly not participating, those who recognise the benefits and have a functional relationship with sport/activity, and those who are uninterested in participating in sport. It then provides a set of design principles which detail the type of overall experience each audience group is looking for. The pack concludes with examples of programmes and approaches that are already successfully engaging different audiences through applying some of the insights.
Understanding enjoyment within the context of the children-to-youth sport transition in Norwegian soccer: A mixed methods study, opens in a new tab, Thomas Mangor Jørgensen, Siv Gjesdal, Frank Eirik Abrahamsen, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 75, (November 2024). The purpose of this mixed methods study was to investigate youth soccer players’ enjoyment within the children-to-youth sport transition context. The quantitative phase consisted of 214 soccer players (28.2 % girls, Mage = 12.56 years) who completed a questionnaire, and structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. A total of 10 soccer players (6 boys and 4 girls) who had reported different levels of enjoyment were interviewed. The results indicated that expectation of success and the mastery-approach goal had a positive relationship with enjoyment. The qualitative data further revealed that love for the sport, being with friends, and learning and mastery were sources of enjoyment for the players. A key finding was that players experienced increased seriousness in the transition, which may have a negative impact on their enjoyment. In conclusion, coaches should emphasize players’ expectations of success, learning, and intrapersonal mastery, while creating a team culture that values friendship and passion for the sport. These strategies can enhance enjoyment, potentially sustaining youth participation in soccer during the children-to-youth sport transition.
Creating optimally safe and enjoyable youth sporting experiences within the United Kingdom, opens in a new tab, Maita G. Furusa, Camilla J. Knight, Thomas D. Love, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 73, (July 2024). The purpose of the current study was to explore perceptions of the process through which an optimally safe and enjoyable sporting experience can be created for young people. Interviews were conducted with 19 young people, six parents, nine coaches, and five individuals in safeguarding roles. The interviews were analysed through open and axial coding, followed by theoretical integration. The resultant theory highlighted that establishing positive relationships between all young people and key individuals in a physically and developmentally safe environment was a fundamental requirement for fostering an optimally safe and enjoyable sporting experience. Achieving this required consideration of factors both in the immediate and broad sporting context. Specifically, support from sports organisations, access to continuing professional development opportunities, and a network of safeguarding experts are required in the broader environment. While within the immediate sporting environment, visibly displayed and appropriately implemented safeguarding policies and procedures; open, honest, and respectful interactions; shared goals and expectations between parents, coaches, and young people, and trusting and supportive friendships with shared experiences are required.
Youth sport dropout according to the Process-Person-Context-Time model: a systematic review, opens in a new tab, Kylie Moulds, Sheila Galloway, Shaun Abbott, et al., International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Volume 17(1), pp.440-481, (2024). This study systematically reviewed how youth sport dropout literature has been theoretically framed; how dropout has been defined and measured; and, mapped all influential factors previously associated (or not) with dropout across and within youth sport. Peer-reviewed literature (N = 69 studies) published over four decades (1980–2021) residing within five databases was synthesised using a mixed-methods review approach. Existing identified studies examined single or multi-sport (male and female) youth sport contexts worldwide, at different participation levels, although predominantly local club-level. Prior studies predominantly adopted psychological-based theoretical frameworks; often didn’t define dropout; assessed dropout descriptively; and, focused upon the influence of psychological-based factors. From a PPCT perspective, competition structure, relative age (Process), sex, competence perception (Personal), parental socio-demographics, and conflicts with other activities (Context) were frequently identified as influential to dropout across contexts. Although not explicitly utilising the PPCT, sixteen studies examined factors across PPCT levels, with one identifying significant independent influences across the model. Future research is recommended to apply more encompassing (social-ecological) theoretical frameworks; specify dropout definitions and measures; and apply more advanced analytical methods. To help improve study methodological quality, the ‘Youth Sport Dropout - Study Checklist (YSD-SC)’ is presented.
Sport4Me: A people focused approach to engaging Australians in sport, opens in a new tab, Rochelle Eime, Hans Westerbeek, Shane Pill, et al., Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 4, (January 2023). The traditional model of community club-based sport is fine for those, particularly children and youth, who enjoy the competitive focus and have the skills and commitment to play. But societal preferences during leisure time have changed dramatically over recent decades. However, sport organisations have made limited progress in response to these changes in providing ways in which children and youth can participate outside the traditional competitive structures and environments. In this paper the context of community club-based structures is reviewed leading into an assessment of the associated impact of these structures on sport participation. Children and youth's current motivations to play sport including what makes sport fun to play, are considered. It is then demonstrated that the associations between motivations to play sport and the factors that contribute to fun and enjoyment, are often misaligned for many individuals, with a primary focus on competition-based structures to deliver community club sport. In the final part of the paper a model for community sport organisations where people are put first is proposed - Sport4Me. Sport4Me is about flexible, inclusive, equitable sporting opportunities that focus on friends, fun, physical literacy and play. The model would complement the traditional competitive club-based model and afford participants more choice whilst fostering an environment that promotes lifelong involvement in sport. This model will require structural and cultural changes to the sporting environment and include coaching practices. Sport4Me is an evidence-based model, but it is not radical in its conceptualisation but rather, builds on previously proposed approaches, considers the needs and wants of potential sport participants and widens the scope of sport delivery.
Considering the cost(s) of the game: Consumer behavior and parents in youth ice hockey, opens in a new tab, Alex Murata, Jean Côté, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, Volume 35(5), pp.775-792, (2023). Fifteen parents with children enrolled in youth ice hockey programming were interviewed regarding aspects of their behaviors as program consumers. Parents disclosed that, although ice hockey provided their families with a variety of benefits, they were (a) dissatisfied with the programming quality itself and (b) felt program improvements were unlikely. Accounting for parental stress and frustration around their youth sports program purchases (i.e., satisfaction with their purchases) should be considered when creating strategies to combat negative parental behaviors. It may be useful for youth sports programs to implement more rigorous mechanisms for receiving and addressing feedback from parents. Adopting strategies from the consumer behavior literature (e.g., brand loyalty; consumer satisfaction) may be helpful to aid youth sport programmers to improve relationships with youth sport parents in the future.
The Sport Participation Pathway Model (SPPM): a conceptual model for participation and retention in community sport, opens in a new tab, Rochelle Eime, Melanie Charity, Hans Westerbeek, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 14(2), pp.291-304, (2022). The aim of this study is to review sport participation trends, including new data on retention and drop-out across age groups in community club-based sport, and combine this data with evidence from literature about people moving in and out of sport, to develop the Sport Participation Pathway Model (SPPM), which provides a holistic view of sport participation. We conducted a 3-year analysis of sport participation for eight major sports from 2015–2017 for children and young people aged 4–29 years. The total number of participants was 579,696. Only half 50.8% played continuously for the three years, 44.7% dropped out, and 4.5% played discontinuously. Drop-out was highest for those aged 4 (57.0%), and lowest for those aged 10–14 years (39.3%). The SPPM demonstrates the movements of participation in sport and the drop-out at various stages out of competitive club-based sport and for those who are the main participants. The model is a standalone sport participation model that is a representation and integration of empirical sport participation. This model therefore is most useful for sports organisations to recognise issues around retention and drop-out. In developing sport policies, government can also use the model to make decisions on target groups and funding support.
Unlocking the game within the child: a youth sport pedagogy model from the U.S., opens in a new tab, Ronald W. Quinn, AUC Kinanthropologica, Volume 58(2), pp.73–82, (2022). The 'Game in the Child Model' was designed on the premise that you must first learn how to teach the child before you can teach them to play the sport and is most beneficial for children 12 years of age and younger. This foundational premise guides all other components of the model from a philosophical as well as a developmental level. These guiding factors consist of four levels beginning with child characteristics (how they think, feel, grow), coach characteristics (their past and present experiences), organizational characteristics (type and purpose). The leads to gaining a better understanding of how play can be used as a tool for growth and development within an athlete-centered environment. The final two levels address a game-based pedagogical approach that reflects the first two levels with the goal of unlocking the Game within the Child. The model also recognizes the importance of the child’s social, economic, and political influences through the envelopment of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory.
What do adolescents and young adults strive for in sport and exercise? An explorative study on goal profiles in sport and exercise, opens in a new tab, Vanessa Gut, Achim Conzelmann, Julia Schmid, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 40(5), pp.571-582, (2022). In sport and exercise promotion, it is important to consider goals because achieving these goals leads to a sense of well-being and behaviour adherence. Individuals often pursue multiple goals simultaneously. Therefore, it is also important to not only consider each individual’s combination of goals but also to identify so-called “goal profiles”. Taking a developmental-psychological perspective, the goal profiles of adolescents (aged 14-19 years) may differ from those of young adults (aged 20-34 years). 966 adolescents and 636 young adults, were questioned by self-report on their goals in sport and exercise, self-determined motivation, sport and exercise behaviour, and gender. for the majority of adolescents and young adults: In adolescents, goals such as contact (getting to know people) and the perception of challenge were more prominent, whereas in young adults, health, figure/appearance, and distraction/catharsis were dominant.
Scaling junior sport competition: A body-scaling approach? , opens in a new tabNathan Broadbent, Tim Buszard, Damian Farrow, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 39(23), pp.2746-2754, (August 2021). The design of the junior sport competition environment plays a critical role in attracting and retaining children as life-long participants. Critically, however, the guidelines governing the design of junior sport are rarely scrutinized. With this in mind, our aim is to offer sports authorities a method to systematically assess the suitability of guidelines. The most popular junior ball sport competitions in Australia were assessed in relation to the scaling of task constraints and compared to children’s corresponding physical maturation and/or performance measures. This assessment enabled the calculation of pi ratios, which were then used to categorise constraints as either (1) undersized, (2) appropriately sized or (3) oversized. Results revealed that most sports’ ask children to play in oversized conditions, particularly in the under 9 to under 12 age groups and in boys’ competitions. The task constraints that had the highest percentage of pi ratios appropriately sized were match duration and goal size. Comparatively, ball size and field length had the highest percentage of pi ratios classified as oversized. We contend that the systematic approach applied in this article should be used by sports authorities to understand the extent of scaling constraints in junior sport.
Effect of scaling basket height for young basketball players during the competition: seeking out positive sport experiences, opens in a new tab, Enrique Ortega-Toro, Francisco Javier García-Angulo, José María Giménez-Egido, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 39(24), pp.2763-2771, (July 2021). This study aimed to analyse the effect of reducing basket height on the technical-tactical actions, physical participation, self-efficacy, cooperation and enjoyment of young basketball players in the competition. 51 under-14 male basketball players from four teams were chosen as the sample. The data collection included 2,286 attack phases during 12 matches. All players competed in two tournaments using official basketball rules but different basket heights (official basket height, 3.05 metres, and modified basket height, 2.80 metres). The dependent variables were: a) types of shooting actions, shot efficacy, and shooting conditions; b) the duration, type, number of passes done, and efficacy of the attack phases; c) heart rate values; and d) perception of specific and physical self-efficacy, collective efficacy, cooperation, and enjoyment. The results show that the scaled basket promoted game styles that increased the occurrence of fast-breaks and long positional attack phase. Shot efficacy for all shot types improved (not-significantly) and brought change in players’ specific self-efficacy and enjoyment. These findings show that scaling equipment can help the transition from mini-basket to regular basket (under-14 age group) by generating better conditions for players’ development.
Scaling the cricket pitch to fit junior players, opens in a new tab, Michael Harwood, Maurice Yeadon, Mark King, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 39(1), pp.31-37, (2021). In this study, a method of scaling the cricket pitch length is presented which is based on the age-specific size and performance of the bowlers and batters. The objective was a pitch length which enabled young bowlers to bowl good length deliveries while releasing the ball at a more downward angle, similar to elite bowlers. The steeper release angle has the benefit of reducing the sensitivity of the ball flight distance to the variability of ball release. Based on data from county standard under-10 and under-11 players a pitch length of 16.22 yards (14.83 m) was calculated, 19% shorter than previously recommended for under-11s in England. A shorter pitch also increases the temporal challenge for batters, encouraging a wider variety of shots and improved anticipation skills. Pitch lengths scaled in this way to fit the players’ abilities as they develop will enable a more consistent ball release by bowlers and more consistent temporal demand for batters.
Learn, Have Fun and Be Healthy! An Interview Study of Swedish Teenagers’ Views of Participation in Club Sport, opens in a new tab, Britta Thedin Jakobsson Suzanne Lundvall, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 18(13), (June 2021). In Sweden, participation in club sport is a vital part of many children’s lives. Despite this, many stop in their teenage years, raising questions concerning if and in what ways club sport can provide health-promoting activities via longer, sustained participation. The aim of this cross-sectional study is to explore and discuss young people’s views of club sport from a health-promoting perspective. The analysis draws on three sets of qualitative data: results from focus groups interviews conducted in 2007 (n = 14) and in 2016 (n = 8) as well as 18 in-depth interviews conducted 2008. Antonovsy’s salutogenic theory and his sense of coherence (SOC) model inspired the analysis. Teenagers want to be a part of club sport because of a sense of enjoyment, learning, belonging and feeling healthy. Teenagers stop when sport becomes too serious, non-flexible, time-consuming and too competitive. The urge for flexibility and possibilities to make individual decisions were emphasised in 2016. The organisation of club sport, it seems, has not adapted to changes in society and a generation of teenagers’ health interests. Club sport has the potential to be a health-promoting arena, but the focus should be on changing the club sport environment, instead of a focus on changing young people.
Barriers to adolescent female participation in cricket, opens in a new tab, J. Fowlie, R. M. Eime, K. Griffiths, Annals of Leisure Research, Volume 24(4), pp.513-531, (2021). With the ever-growing number of opportunities for females to participate in a range of sports without the previous associated gender norms, females are starting to become more involved in traditionally male-dominated sports, however, we know little about their barriers to participation. In this qualitative study, we investigated the barriers to adolescent female participation in cricket in a regional city in Victoria, Australia. The socio-ecological model was utilized to help guide semi-structured focus-group interviews with 20 adolescent females aged 10–12 years old. The participants identified the following as key barriers to their participation in cricket: lack of confidence in skills, having to play cricket with males, an absence of pathway opportunities, and no female only cricket competitions. These findings highlight the importance of adequate coaching specifically for females, female only teams and competitions, and the importance of developing a player pathway for adolescent girls.
Play more, enjoy more, keep playing; rugby is a simple game, opens in a new tab. Ben Jones, Ed Hope, Andrew Hammond, et al., International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, Volume 16(3), pp.636-645, (2021). Drop out and attrition rates in youth sport are well-documented in the literature. Research has found that children overwhelmingly state that enjoyment, fun, and positive experiences are the primary reasons to participate in sport. Competitive Engineering (CE) is a structurally-based competitive climate process designed to create a more positive experience in youth sport. CE encompasses changes to league structures, equipment, pitch-size, and game rules. For example, rule changes that stipulate greater involvement (e.g., playing time) or action (e.g., increasing scoring opportunities) are designed to improve engagement. Despite this, few studies have examined whether CE-based rule changes influence factors known to influence drop out from sport. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a rule change in youth rugby whereby any player selected as part of a match day squad must play at least half a game or equivalent (i.e., the ‘Half-Game Rule’). To achieve this, we studied the influence of the rule change on player reported outcomes throughout the 2017/2018 playing season. Players who “always or almost always” experienced playing at least half a game more often than other players; reported higher enjoyment, than those who played less regularly (F = 35.6, P < .001). Importantly, players who reported higher levels of enjoyment also reported greater intentions to continue playing rugby (F = 6.4, P < .002). Findings support the use of CE to facilitate player enjoyment in team sports and could lead to reduced attrition in youth sport more generally.
The effect of equipment modification on the performance of novice junior cricket batters, opens in a new tab, Paul Dancy, Colm Murphy, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 38(21), pp.2415-2422, (June 2020). This study, therefore, aims to determine the effect of increasing surface area of cricket equipment (bats and balls) on batting performance and technique. Forty-three children (Mage = 5.2, SD = 0.8 years) completed a cricket batting task in which they aimed to hit the ball through a target zone while using either regular-scaled, or modified bat and ball with an increased surface area. The number of bat-ball contacts was significantly higher when using the modified (M = 13.81, SE = 0.42) compared to the regular-scaled ball (M = 10.65, SE = 0.49). Batting performance measured as shots played through target areas was also significantly higher when using the modified (M = 31.78, SE = 1.97) than the regular-scaled ball (M = 28.85, SE = 2.27). More desirable technique was also observed when using the modified compared to the regular bat. Findings suggest that further modifications to regular-scaled equipment can enhance skill production.
Equipment modification can enhance skill learning in young field hockey players, opens in a new tab, JEA Brocken, J van der Kamp, M Lenoir, et.al., International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, Volume 15(3), pp.382-389, (June 2020). The aim of the study was to investigate whether performance of children can be improved by training with modified equipment that challenges movement execution. For that purpose, young field hockey players practiced with a modified and a regular hockey ball. The modified hockey ball enforces more variable movement execution during practice by rolling less predictably than a regular hockey ball and, thus, challenges the players’ stick–ball control. Two groups of 7- to 9-year old children, with 0 to 4 years of experience, participated in a crossover-design, in which they either received four training sessions with the modified ball followed by four training sessions with the regular ball or vice versa. Results show that practice with the modified ball led to greater performance improvement than the intervention with the regular hockey ball. This performance improvement, however, was not predicted by experience and/or initial skill (i.e. pretest score). The findings indicate that by using modified equipment, sport trainers and physical education teachers can, presumably through enhancement of movement variability during practice, stimulate skill acquisition in young children.
Designing Junior Sport to Maximize Potential: The Knowns, Unknowns, and Paradoxes of Scaling Sport, opens in a new tab, Tim Buszard, Damian Farrow and Machar Reid, frontiers in Psychology, (January 2020). Junior sport is a regular weekend activity for many children across the world, yet many will be required to prematurely play on a field or with equipment that is designed for adults. Herein lies an opportunity for sport administrators to nurture children’s development in sport by appropriately manipulating the rules and dimensions of the game. The aim of this mini-review is to (1) draw attention to the value of scaling junior sport, (2) highlight paradoxes within the current scaling sport literature, and (3) emphasize a way forward for junior sport research. If we are genuine in our endeavor to tailor sports experiences for children, more sophisticated approaches to scaling those experiences are a must.
Barriers and facilitators of sport and physical activity for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and adolescents: a mixed studies systematic review, opens in a new tab, Tamara May, Amanda Dudley, James Charles, et al., BMC Public Health, Volume 20, Article no.601, (2020). This study was focused on a comprehensive identification of barriers and facilitators at each level of the social-ecological model. From this process, gender and geographic location emerged as areas in which individual engagement with PA and sport was highly influenced by environmental, community, and policy factors. Taken together, programs which offer sporting participation options for all family members (children, adolescents and adults), which appeal to males and females, are accessible through existing transport and related infrastructure, and are committed to communities through formal partnerships are needed. There are unique barriers in remote areas including, lack of programs in the local language, the transient nature of teachers, climate factors and a lack of (ongoing) sporting programs which will need targeted approaches to overcome. Overall, the health benefits of sport as well as its ability to provide future opportunities for young people are also a key facilitator. Public health campaigns broadening these messages to cover both physical and mental health could increase participation in sport and thus derive improved health outcomes.
Implementation of a modified sport programme to increase participation: Key stakeholder perspectives, opens in a new tab, Tim Buszard, Luca Oppici, Hans Westerbeek, et al., Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 38(8), pp.945-952, (2020). Modified sports, whereby equipment and rules are manipulated to facilitate skill performance, have been shown to promote skill learning and potentially increase participation. However, it is currently unexplored how key stakeholders – coaches and key figures working in National associations – who are critical stakeholders in implementing and delivering sport programmes, perceive modified sport. This study explored how tennis coaches and key figures working within tennis National associations perceived the impact of implementing a modified tennis campaign on participation and skill development in children and adults. Key figures and coaches around the world completed an online questionnaire. Both groups considered that modified tennis was positively associated with increasing and sustaining participation, skill learning, talent development and people’s attitude towards tennis. Furthermore, participants thought that a rule change (i.e., use of a low-compression ball in children competitions) and the campaign’s core messages (i.e., “serve, rally, score” and “easy, fun, and healthy”) have been critical for the success of the campaign. These results support previous research on the positive impact of modified tennis on skill development and provide a further impetus on implementing modified sports to increase participation. Other sports can adopt similar strategies to improve their modified programmes.
The influence of modified equipment in developing skills in badminton, opens in a new tab, Abdul Muiz Nor Azmi, Pathmanathan K. Suppiah, Jeffrey Low Fook Lee, et.al., Malaysian Journal of Movement Health and Exercise, Volume 9(1), (2020). The aim of this study was to examine the effect of modified equipment on skill acquisition among novice badminton players. The participants (24 boys, 16 girls) aged between 7 – 9 years old, without any prior formal badminton experience, were randomly divided into four groups: standard racquet with standard court (SRSC), standard racquet with modified court (SRMC), modified racquet with standard court (MRSC) and modified racquet with modified court (MRMC). Based on the results, the children who practiced using modified racquet with the modified court (MRMC), recorded the highest hitting opportunities and stroke effectiveness compared to the others groups. The participants who practiced using the standard equipment recorded less hitting opportunities and stroke effectiveness during the mini-competition. This study demonstrated the advantages for children playing using modified equipment with a smaller court. By manipulating the task constraints, skill acquisition can be enhanced among children.
A Shorter Cricket Pitch Improves Decision-Making by Junior Batters, opens in a new tab, Michael Harwood, Maurice Yeadon, Mark King, Journal of Sports Science, Volume 37(17), pp.1934-1941, (2019). This study sought to determine whether playing on a shorter cricket pitch would lead batters to make more appropriate decisions about whether to play front foot or back foot shots. Based on an analysis of the shots played by top order batters against seam bowling in county under-10 matches, an age-specific "good length" region between 5.0 yards and 6.5 yards (4.57 to 5.94 m) from the batters' stumps was derived.
“It's like you are in the jungle”: Using the draw-and-tell method to explore preschool children's play preferences and factors that shape their active play, opens in a new tab, Nicola Wiseman, Christin Rossmann, Jessica Lee, et al., Health Promotion Journal of Australia, Volume 30(51), pp.85-94, (December 2019). The authors employed visual methodologies to explore the activity preferences of 29 preschool children. Children were asked to draw their preferred activities and answer a series of open and closed questions about their drawing and what they think are the barriers and facilitators to participating in this activity. Participants expressed a desire to play unstructured activities with friends or family, to engage in imaginative, challenging play, as well as the opportunity to have control over the activity they engage in. Children reported that rules at home and at preschool, the availability of toys, friends and family and having access to a natural environment served as both barriers and facilitators to participating in their favourite activity. Listening to children's voices about their play preferences and the barriers and facilitators to engaging in these activities provides important insight into children's play behaviour and the promotion of active play in early childhood. Participants’ desire for more natural features within their play environment and for challenging, unstructured and imaginative play may be considered as facilitators of their engagement in physical activity. The current findings suggest the incorporation of unstructured playtime within natural environments could support young children's participation in and increased enjoyment of physical activity.
Why Children/Youth Drop Out of Sports, opens in a new tab, Peter A. Witt, Tek B. Dangi, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 36(3), (2018). Forty percent of kids played team sports on a regular basis in 2013. Yet, numerous children and youth drop out of sports every year as well. This article explores the reasons why children and youth drop out of sports and offers suggestions for how parents, coaches, and youth development professionals can help to minimize unwarranted and premature dropping out. Three sets of reasons or constraints have been offered for why children and youth drop out of sports. Intrapersonal constraints include lack of enjoyment (not having fun, being bored); low perceptions of physical competence; intrinsic pressures (e.g., stress); and perceptions of negative team dynamics (negative feelings toward team or coach). Interpersonal constraints include parental pressure and loss of feelings of ownership and not having enough time to participate in other age-appropriate activities. Finally, structural constraints include time (for training and travel), injuries, cost, and inadequate facilities. Suggestions for minimizing dropping out of sports and increasing youth engagement include redefining sports goals away from winning toward having fun, balancing parental involvement, encouraging multiple sport participation, enabling children to have autonomy and ownership over game experiences, encouraging rules that give every child a chance to play, decreasing parental pressure about winning, urging parents to avoid living their sports dreams through their children, and beginning sport participation at an appropriate age.
The impact of modified rules on involvement and psychosocial influences on AFL junior football players, opens in a new tab, H. Brownlow, P. Phillips, K. Encel, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 20(Supp1), E121, (January 2017). The use of modified rules increases involvement and is associated with perceptions of enjoyment and competence. Through increasing involvement, modified rules can facilitate more participants to have more opportunity to develop their skills and keep them in the sport for longer through the impact that it has on perceptions of competence and enjoyment. Adults who deliver and support participation in modified rules programs need to be educated and informed of their efficacy.
Enjoyment and Behavioral Intention Predict Organized Youth Sport Participation and Dropout, opens in a new tab, Lauren A. Gardner, Christopher A. Magee, Stewart A. Vella, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 14(11), pp.861–865, (2017). Dropout from organized youth sport has significant adverse health implications. Enjoyment and behavioral intentions have consistently been linked with participation and dropout; however, few studies have investigated these links using a prospective design. This study explored whether enjoyment and intentions to continue predicted dropout behavior at 1-year follow-up. Questionnaires were completed by 327 regular sport participants (mean age = 13.01 y at baseline, 77 males and 250 females). After 1 year, 247 individuals (75.5%) continued participating in their main sport and 26 individuals (8%) dropped out. A hierarchical logistic regression model estimated the probability of dropout. In step 1, the following covariates were included: age, sex, competition level, perceived competence, parental support, coach–athlete relationship, friendship quality, and peer acceptance. In step 2, enjoyment and intentions to continue were included. Step 1 indicated that age, parental support, coach–athlete relationship quality, and peer acceptance were significantly associated with dropout. Step 2 explained further variance in dropout, with both enjoyment and intentions inversely associated with dropout. Peer acceptance was the only covariate to remain significantly associated with dropout in step 2. Conclusions: Findings support the use of enjoyment and behavioral intentions as indicators of sport participation/dropout behavior and may aid the development of interventions aimed at preventing future dropout.
Can't play, won't play: longitudinal changes in perceived barriers to participation in sports clubs across the child–adolescent transition, opens in a new tab, Laura Basterfield, Lauren Gardner, Jessica K Reilly, et al., BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, Volume 2(1), (March 2016). Participation in sports is associated with numerous physical and psychosocial health benefits, however, participation declines with age, and knowledge of perceived barriers to participation in children is lacking. This longitudinal study of children and adolescents aimed to use the ecological model of physical activity to assess changes in barriers to participation in sports clubs to identify age-specific and weight-specific targets for intervention. Perceived barriers to sports participation were collected from a birth cohort, the Gateshead Millennium Study (n>500) at ages 9 and 12 years. The open-ended question ‘Do you find it hard to take part in sports clubs for any reason?’ was completed with free text and analysed using content analysis, and the social–ecological model of physical activity. Barriers from across the social-ecological model were reported. Barriers at 9 years were predominantly of a physical environmental nature, and required high parental involvement (for transport, money, permission), or were associated with a lack of suitable clubs. At 12 years, perceived barriers were predominantly classed as intrapersonal (‘they're boring’) or social environmental (‘my friends don't go’). Perceived barriers were not associated with weight status. Perceived barriers to sports participation change rapidly in childhood and adolescence. Future interventions aiming to increase sports participation in children and adolescents should target specific age groups, should consider the rapid changes which occur in adolescence, and aim to address prominent barriers from across the socioecological model. Perceived barriers may be unrelated to current weight status, allowing for more inclusive solutions.
Social climate profiles in adolescent sports: Associations with enjoyment and intention to continue, opens in a new tab, Gardner L, Magee C, Vella S, Journal of Adolescence, Volume 52, pp.112-123, (2016). This study explored whether adolescent sports participants' perceptions of the social climate fall into distinct profiles, and whether these profiles are related to enjoyment and intention to continue with organised sport. 313 Australian adolescents, mean age 13 years, participated in this study. Four distinct profiles were identified: (1) positive social climate; (2) diminished social climate; (3) positive coach relationship quality; and, (4) positive friendship quality. Participants reporting positive social climate and positive coach relationship quality profiles were most likely to continue in organised sport. The results highlight the value of positive coach-athlete relationships and an overall positive social climate for retaining adolescents in sport programs.
The effect of equipment scaling on children’s sport performance: the case for tennis, opens in a new tab, Timmerman E, de Water J, Kachel K, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 33(10), pp.1093-1100, (2015). This study examined the influence of scaling court-size and net height on children’s tennis performance. The results of this study showed that children hit more winners, more forced errors, played more volleys, struck more shots from a comfortable height and played in a more forward court position when the net was scaled. In addition, scaling both the court and net lead to a faster children’s game, more closely approximating what is typical in an adult game. Further, children enjoyed playing on the scaled court and modified net condition more than standard adult conditions. The authors suggest that optimising the scaling of net height may be as critical as other task constraints, such as racquet length or court-size, as it leads to a more engaging learning environment for children.
The Fun Integration Theory: Towards Sustaining Children and Adolescents Sport Participation, opens in a new tab, Amanda Visek, Sara Achrati, Heather Manning, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 12(3), pp.424-433, (2015). Working with youth soccer players (n = 142), coaches (n = 37), and parents (n = 57) identified 11 fun-dimensions (Being a Good Sport, Trying Hard, Positive Coaching, Learning and Improving, Game Time Support, Games, Practices, Team Friendships, Mental Bonuses, Team Rituals, Swag) and 81 specific fun-determinants. The top 10 determinants of fun were Trying your best, When a coach treats players with respect, playing well together as a team, getting playing time, getting along with your teammates, Exercising and being active, working hard, when a coach encourages the team, having a coach who is a positive role model, playing well during a game, Keeping a positive attitude. ‘Competition’ was number 21; ‘winning’ was number 48.
Sixty minutes of what? A developing brain perspective for activating children with an integrative exercise approach, opens in a new tab, Myer GD, Faigenbaum AD, Edwards NM, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 49(23), pp.1510–1516, (2015). Current recommendations for physical activity in children overlook the critical importance of motor skill acquisition early in life. Instead, they focus on the quantitative aspects of physical activity (eg, accumulate 60 min of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity) and selected health-related components of physical fitness (eg, aerobic fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility and body composition). This focus on exercise quantity in youth may limit considerations of qualitative aspects of programme design which include (1) skill development, (2) socialisation and (3) enjoyment of exercise. The timing of brain development and associated neuroplasticity for motor skill learning makes the preadolescence period a critical time to develop and reinforce fundamental movement skills in boys and girls. Children who do not participate regularly in structured motor skill-enriched activities during physical education classes or diverse youth sports programmes may never reach their genetic potential for motor skill control which underlies sustainable physical fitness later in life. The goals of this review are twofold: (1) challenge current dogma that is currently focused on the quantitative rather than qualitative aspects of physical activity recommendations for youth and (2) synthesise the latest evidence regarding the brain and motor control that will provide the foundation for integrative exercise programming that provide a framework sustainable activity for life.
Validation of the Playing for Life Philosophy for children aged five to 12 years,  Australian Sports Commission  , (May 2013). This philosophy is based on the game sense approach to coaching. The Active After-school Communities program [2005-2014] adopted the ‘Playing for Life’ philosophy to underpin its approach to delivering sport. Playing for Life advocates a fun and inclusive environment for the introduction of sport and other structured physical activities to primary-school aged children. It also ensures children of all abilities are engaged in the activities and have a positive and successful experience.
Engaging Young People: A toolkit, opens in a new tab, Energise Me, (2023). We have written this toolkit to help you better listen to and understand the children and young people you work with about physical activity. To help you include them in the design and delivery of physical activity. And to work together to evaluate what is going well, what can be improved, and what impacts your activities might be having on them.
A Blueprint for Building Quality Participation in Sport for Children and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder, opens in a new tab, Canadian Disability Participation Project, (April 2021). Provides evidence-based strategies for building quality participation in recreation sport and physical activity programs for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder.
A Blueprint for Building Quality Participation in Sport for Children and Youth with Intellectual Disabilities, opens in a new tab, Canadian Disability Participation Project, (April 2021). Developed in partnership with the Special Olympics Canada this resource provides evidence-based strategies for building quality participation in sport programs specifically for children and youth with intellectual disabilities.
Participation Design Toolkit, Australian Sports Commission, (accessed 26 February 2021). This toolkit will help sports design quality participation experiences and attract and retain more participants. The information, resources and templates will assist sport to develop effective participation plans and co-design participant-centred products and experiences that are informed by market insights and evidence-based approaches. Also provides links to additional evidence base and best-practice approaches to plan and design participation experiences that are focused on the needs of participants.
The Blueprint for Building Quality Participation in Sport for Children, Youth, and Adults with a Disability including Quality Participation Checklist Audit Tool, opens in a new tab, Canadian Disability Participation Project, (January 2020). introduces key concepts that underpin quality participation, and provides tools for building quality participation in sport programs.
Activity design for vulnerable young people, opens in a new tab, Energise Me, (2020). Energise Me created this guide with insight from The Behavioural Architects. It follows on from Understanding Vulnerable 14 - 19 year-olds. Discover tips for tackling barriers and creating activities that appeal to vulnerable teenagers. Understanding Vulnerable 14 - 19 year-olds: Motivations and barriers, opens in a new tab, Energise Me, (2020). The Behavioural Architects worked with thirteen 14-19 year-olds, including a mixture of individuals and friendship pairs. Most were inactive, taking part in less than 30 minutes of moderate activity per week. They had a range of health conditions and disabilities including anxiety, depression, diabetes, heart murmur and visual impairments. The majority were facing or had faced life disruptions such as bullying, job loss, family turmoil, mental health conditions, caring duties or trouble with the police. not all vulnerable young people are the same. This guide is designed to get you thinking about the audience you’re trying to reach.
Everyone Plays: A guide to first involvement and quality participation, opens in a new tab, Ontario Soccer, (February 2018). Actively creating opportunities and removing barriers preventing participation in sport is crucial to improving participation levels of kids with disabilities. By sharing proven strategies of how kids with disabilities can be included in sports such as soccer and using them to build successful inclusive sport and recreational programs, we can begin to remove the barriers to sport and community involvement— barriers that have prevented kids with disabilities from experiencing the rich and varied benefits of being physically active. In this guide, we present strategies for how you can remove barriers and promote sport and community involvement through consideration of first involvement and quality participation experiences.
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