Competence (physical literacy)
Feeling competent is extremely important to maintaining sports participation.
A number of studies have concluded that feeling competent is extremely important to maintaining sports participation. Participants who feel confident in their abilities, and/or feel that they are learning and advancing their skills, and parents who feel their child is advancing in physical and social skills, are more likely to continue their participation in organised sports.
By learning the fundamentals of movement and developing a positive attitude to physical activity and sport, individuals acquire the skills, experience, and attitudes that allow them to take part in sports, as well as influencing their level of physical activity throughout their lives.
Physical literacy increases the likelihood of sports participation and long-term physical activity. Research has shown that the childhood years are a critical period for motor development and the opportunity to become ‘physically literate’. Research also suggests that girls are less likely to feel competent in their physical literacy, particularly as they get older, which likely contributes to lower levels of life-long sport participation.
The 2016 and 2018 Australian Active Health Kids report cards, opens in a new tab gave Australian children a 'D+' grade for movement skills and a 'D-' for overall physical activity. To align with the Global Matrix (which does not grade Movement Skills) this indicator was not included in the 2022 Report Card, opens in a new tab, although the physical activity score remained the same.
More information on physical literacy and the Australian Physical Literacy Framework is available from the Australian Sports Commission's Physical Literacy website.
Resources and reading
- Physical Literacy, opens in a new tab, Kid Do/University of WA, (accessed 21 April 2022). The fundamental movement skills you learn as a young child can have a significant impact on the rest of your life, through school and into adulthood. Here are 3 typical stories that highlight how physical literacy in early childhood can affect the rest of your life.
- DCU Research News: Perceived Competence a Key Factor in Children's Participation in Physical Activity, opens in a new tab, MENAFN, (30 March 2020). New research findings from Dublin City University has found that among children aged 8-12, their perception of their abilities to carry out fundamental movement skills (running, hopping, skipping, jumping) plays a key role in their decision to take part in physical activity.
- Want an Olympic legacy? Get primary school children trying out a range of different sports, opens in a new tab, James Rudd and Colum Cronin, Senior lecturers, Liverpool John Moores University, The Conversation, (5 September 2016). A BBC campaign is encouraging British school children to “Get Inspired” by Team GB’s success and emulate their sporting heroes. However laudable this is, it comes amid a general decline in children’s basic skills at running, jumping, throwing, catching and kicking. Worrying findings across the world show that the movement skills of today’s children are less well developed than previous generations. A recent study in the UK also found children’s movement skills to be poor.
- Reboot! Reimagining physically active lives: 2022 Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Young People, Active Healthy Kids Australia, opens in a new tab, (2022). Since the inception of the Australian Physical Activity Report Card in 2014, our national and state surveillance data has consistently shown overall physical activity levels score a D-. This means that fewer than one third of our children are meeting the national guidelines for the recommended levels of daily physical activity needed for optimal health and wellbeing. The theme of this year’s Report Card, ‘REBOOT! Reimagining physically active lives’, highlights the opportunity that the global COVID-19 pandemic has brought, as a catalyst to reassess and reboot ideas and possibilities around children’s physical activity and how to create more physically active lifestyles for all. While restrictions brought about by the pandemic generally resulted in children being less physically active than before, there have also been changes in how children are physically active. It is these changes and innovations that hold promise for children’s physical activity moving forward. In particular, changes that should be retained and built upon include: the embracing of leisure activities such as walking and cycling, including new infrastructure; a focus on being active in nature and neighbourhood green spaces; and innovations in the use of technology to support physical activity in the home. We now have a unique opportunity to capture these positive changes and integrate them with what we know works from before.
- Active Lives: Children and Young People Survey - Attitudes towards sport and physical activity, opens in a new tab, Sport England , (March 2019). This analysis identified insights into the attitudes of children and young people towards sport and physical activity.
- Physically literate children do twice as much activity. The more of the five elements of physical literacy —enjoyment, confidence, competence, understanding, and knowledge—children have, the more active they are.
- Enjoyment is the biggest driver of activity levels. Despite the majority of children (68%) understanding that sport and activity is good for them, understanding had the least impact on activity levels.
- Children who have all five elements of physically literacy report higher levels of happiness, are more trusting of other children, and report higher levels of resilience (continuing to try if you find something difficult).
- Physical literacy decreases with age. As children grow older, they report lower levels of enjoyment, confidence, competence, and understanding. Previous research from Sport England shows that activity levels drop when children reach their teenage years.
- There are inequalities between certain groups of children. Girls are less likely to say they enjoy or feel confident about doing sport and physical activity (58% of boys enjoy it, compared to 43% of girls, and 47% of boys feel confident, compared to 31% of girls). Among children aged 5-7, boys are more likely to love playing sport, while girls are more likely to love being active. Children from the least affluent families are less likely to enjoy activity than those from the most affluent families, and previous research shows they are also far less likely to be active. Black children are more physically literate than other ethnic groups—driven by boys, but they're less active than the population as a whole.
- Updated statistics on these measures continue to be reported in annual Active Lives Children and Young People survey, opens in a new tab reports.
- Muscular Fitness: It’s Time for a Jump Start. The 2018 Active Healthy Kids Australia Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Young People, opens in a new tab, Active Healthy Kids Australia, (2018). Active Healthy Kids Australia (AHKA) is a collaboration of 13 physical activity researchers from nine universities with the primary goal to advocate for ways to increase physical activity and decrease sedentary behaviour among Australian children and young people. The theme of this year’s Report Card highlights the seemingly forgotten component of our national physical activity guidelines — that children should engage in muscle and bone strengthening activities on at least three days per week. Recently highlighted declines in the jumping ability of Australian children and young people indicate that ‘it’s time for a jump start’ for muscular fitness. We need immediate action in order to get our kids moving more everyday — they need to engage in activities that will get them ‘huffing and puffing’ as well as strengthening and developing their muscles and bones to ensure they are healthy heading into adulthood.
- Physical Literacy: Do Our Kids Have All the Tools? The 2016 Active Healthy Kids Australia Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Young People, opens in a new tab, Active Healthy Kids Australia, (2016). The Report Card synthesises the best available Australian evidence in order to assign grades to physical activity indicators, and provides a national snap shot of the current levels of physical activity in Australian children and young people. This Report highlights the concept of Physical Literacy, specifically the ‘tools’ children need to be physically active for life. The results of the 2016 Report Card will contribute to the second ‘Global Matrix’ of grades, this time benchmarking Australia against 37 countries.
- Physical Literacy: A global environmental scan, opens in a new tab, Spengler J and Cohen J, Aspen Institute, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2015). Project Play is an initiative that aims to develop a cross-sector plan for physical literacy (PL) in the United States. The first step in the development of the project was to produce this environmental scan of current practice in nine countries: Australia, Canada, England, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Wales. Key findings from this initial investigation include: (1) each country has developed its own definition of physical literacy, but all definitions include a long-term approach, references to affective outcomes (motivation, confidence, etc.) and physical outcomes (fitness and health); (2) each country uses national sporting bodies and schools to promote physical literacy and deliver physical literacy through physical education, community sports programs and active play; (3) countries having well-established initiatives use an online presence (campaigns, resources, blogs, etc.) to deliver strong effective messages about the value of physical literacy; (4) promotion of physical literacy to policymakers often occurs in the context of preventive health outcomes; (5) many physical literacy initiatives target low-income and underserved populations for government funded programs; (6) effective physical literacy initiatives have grassroots support, and; (7) assessment tools to measure and monitor the outcomes of physical literacy initiatives are relatively new, and longitudinal studies are rare.
- Getting Australia Moving: establishing a physically literate and active nation (game plan), opens in a new tab, Keegan R, Keegan S, Daley S, Ordway C, et.al., Centre of Excellence in Physical Literacy and Active Youth (CEPLAY), University of Canberra, (2013). Physical inactivity costs the Australian economy about $13.8 billion annually in healthcare costs, lost productivity and premature mortality. This report presents the case for increasing physical literacy amongst children in Australia, with a view to promoting physical activity and healthy lifestyles. Physical literacy is a concept capturing: (1) the ability to move effectively; (2) the desire to move; (3) the perceptual abilities that support effective movement; (4) the confidence and assurance to attempt movement challenges; and (5) the subsequent ability to interact effectively with the environment and other people. Children who become physically literate are more likely to achieve sporting prowess, athleticism, cardiovascular fitness or more time spent being active; which are amongst a long list of positive outcomes.
- Early-years swimming: adding capital to young Australians, final report, opens in a new tab, Jorgensen R, Griffith University, (2013). The Early-Years Swimming Research Project has been conducted over four years. It has centred on an examination of the possible benefits that may accrue for under-5s who participate in swimming lessons. Participating in swimming has rewards too for health and fitness, but unlike other physical or intellectual pursuits undertaken by children in the years prior to schooling, formal swimming lessons can commence at a much earlier age. Water familiarisation activities can start soon after birth with baby’s first bath and formal lessons start in many swim centres for babies as young as four months. No other baby-centred leisure activity commences at such a young age. The survey has shown considerable differences between normal developmental milestones and when swimming children are reported to achieve them. The child testing has shown that swimming children are often months or years ahead of their same age peers in the normal populations of the tests that were used. One would anticipate that children who engage in activities that develop their physical skills would perform better on measures of this type so it is unsurprising to report that the children do well in areas that require them to use their bodies for movement (such as hopping, walking, running, or climbing stairs). What is surprising, and of interest to parents, educators, and policy makers, is that the children also score significantly better on measures that related to their visual motor skills (which includes skills such as cutting paper, colouring-in and drawing lines); gross motor stationery skills (e.g. standing on tiptoes, standing on one foot, imitating movement, performing sit-ups); oral expression (being able to speak and explain things, etc.); and achieving in general areas of literacy and numeracy and mathematical reasoning. It was also found that the children scored better on measures of understanding and complying with directions. Swimming children performed at levels of very high significance in relation to normal populations (p>0.001). Many of these skills are needed in formal education contexts so it would appear that swimming children may be better prepared for their transitions to school. This is a considerable advantage that is well beyond the swimming skills and water safety skills advocated by the swim industry.The findings may be a reflection of the socio-economic strata of participant’s families, as middle and upper socio-economic families are more likely to enrol their children in swim lessons. However, further analysis has indicated that differences between a swimming group and a similar population cohort do exist.
- Movement competence: Association with physical self-efficacy and physical activity, opens in a new tab, Cameron Peers, Johann Issartel, Stephen Behan, et al., Human Movement Science, Volume 70, (April 2020). Movement competence (fundamental movement skills and perceived movement skill competence) acts as a source of information for children's physical self-efficacy, moreover physical self-efficacy mediates the movement competence – PA relationship. Findings highlight the need for interventions to target and improve movement competence as a whole for children.
- Should toddlers and preschoolers participate in organized sport? A scoping review of developmental outcomes associated with young children’s sport participation, opens in a new tab, Meghan Harlow, Lauren Wolman, Jessica Fraser-Thomas, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Volume 13(1), pp.40-64, (2020). Organized sport is offered at increasingly younger ages, with many programs geared towards preschoolers, toddlers, and infants. While sport is promoted as an amendable context for healthy development of school-age children, little is empirically known about potential benefits or risks associated with organized sport participation in early childhood. A scoping review of nine electronic databases identified English-language, peer-reviewed, original research articles which addressed psychological, emotional, social, cognitive, or intellectual developmental outcomes of organized sport involvement of children aged 2–5 years; included studies were appraised for quality. Findings offer preliminary evidence that early sport participation is related to primarily positive outcomes (e.g. enhanced social skills, pro-social behaviours, self-regulation), while negative and inconclusive outcomes were also identified. Results suggest limited existing research has primarily relied on parent or teacher proxy-report or assessment, and reinforces that little is known about toddler and preschooler organized sport participation as a distinct form of physical activity, despite pervasive availability of programming, and positive parental perceptions of early enrolment.
- Development of a physical literacy model for older adults – a consensus process by the collaborative working group on physical literacy for older Canadians, opens in a new tab, Gareth Jones, Liza Stathokostas, Bradley Young, et al., BMC Geriatrics, Volume 18(13), (January 2018). Older adults are a unique group who have yet to be exposed to PL as a means to promote long-term PA participation. This new PL model uses an ecological approach to integrate PL into the lifestyles of most older adults. Understanding the interactions between components and elements that facilitate PL will ultimately provide a new and effective tool to target PA promotion and adherence for all older Canadians.
- Why Children/Youth Drop Out of Sports, opens in a new tab, Peter Witt, Tek Dangi, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 36(3), (2018). Forty percent of kids played team sports on a regular basis in 2013. Yet, numerous children and youth drop out of sports every year as well. This article explores the reasons why children and youth drop out of sports and offers suggestions for how parents, coaches, and youth development professionals can help to minimize unwarranted and premature dropping out. Three sets of reasons or constraints have been offered for why children and youth drop out of sports. Intrapersonal constraints include lack of enjoyment (not having fun, being bored); low perceptions of physical competence; intrinsic pressures (e.g., stress); and perceptions of negative team dynamics (negative feelings toward team or coach). Interpersonal constraints include parental pressure and loss of feelings of ownership and not having enough time to participate in other age-appropriate activities. Finally, structural constraints include time (for training and travel), injuries, cost, and inadequate facilities.
- Setting them up for lifetime activity: Play competence perceptions and physical activity in young children, opens in a new tab. Lisa Barnett, Nicola Ridgers, Kylie Hesketh, et al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 20 (9), pp.856-860, (2017). The study purpose was to assess if perceived active play competence is associated with young children’s physical activity. Positive findings in the older sample show school-aged children need exposure to play based activities in order to develop the positive self-perception needed to engage in MVPA every day.
- Sport-specific factors predicting player retention in junior cricket, opens in a new tab, Talpey S, Croucher T, Mustafa A, et al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 17(3), pp.264-270, (2017). This investigation sought to determine the performance and participation factors that influenced continued participation in junior cricket. Players (under the age of 16 years) at a community-level junior cricket association in Australia were surveyed over a seven-year period. Performance factors that significantly predicted continued participation in junior cricket were the number of innings batted and the number of overs bowled. Other performance factors, such as the number of runs scored or wickets taken also influenced ongoing participation. These results demonstrate that sufficient opportunity for children to participate in the game and expression of skills competence are key factors for retention in cricket.
- Association between sports participation, motor competence and weight status: A longitudinal study, opens in a new tab, Henrique R, Re A, Stodden D, et al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 19(10), pp.825-829, (October 2016). The aim of this study was to investigate if baseline motor competence, weight status, and sports participation in early childhood predicted sports participation two years later. Results indicated that preschoolers who initially participated in sports had acquired more advanced locomotor skills and were more likely to participate in sports two years later. The authors conclude that development of motor competency is cumulative during early childhood and the effects on sport participation and physical activity may be persistent across childhood. Locomotor skills were the first subset of motor competence associated with sport participation, as it involves independent upright locomotion. The next step in the developmental hierarchy is refinement of object control skills, which are generally associated with the maintenance of posture. Because more complex perceptual-motor adjustments are needed for controlled and precise object manipulation and projection, it is clear that prolonged exposure to motor experiences involving object control skills may be needed to achieve mastery in this area.
- Why Are Girls Less Physically Active than Boys? Findings from the LOOK Longitudinal Study, opens in a new tab, Telford RM, Telford RD, Olive LS, et al., PLoS ONE, Volume 11(3), (2016). Highlights the impact of differences between boys and girls in relation to attributes that are linked to greater lifetime physical activity (such as cardio-respiratory fitness, eye-hand co-ordination, and perceived competence in physical education/movement) and the need to take these factors into account when designing intervention strategies.
- Cross-cultural comparison of motor competence in children from Australia and Belgium, opens in a new tab, Bardid F, Rudd J, Lenoir M, et al., Frontiers in Psychology, (July 2015). Due to the many different motor skill instruments in use, children's motor competence across countries is rarely compared. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the motor competence of children from Australia and Belgium. Statistical analysis showed that 21% of Belgian children and 39% Australian children scored ‘below average’. The very low levels reported by Australian children may be the result of cultural differences influencing physical activity, such as the physical education framework in schools and the use of active transport (walking or cycling) to/from school. When compared to normed scores, both samples scored significantly worse than children 40 years ago. The decline in children's motor competence is a global issue, largely influenced by increasing sedentary behaviour and a decline in physical activity.
- Operationalizing physical literacy through sport education, opens in a new tab, Hastie P and Wallhead T, Journal of Sport and Health Science, Volume 4(2), pp.132-138, (June 2015). Physical literacy, as embodied within physical education, has been associated with the disposition of students of all abilities to engage in lifelong physical activity. This paper discusses how the pedagogical features of Sport Education, may be used to operationalise both physical literacy and physical education. The authors conclude that substantial evidence exists to validate the link between physical literacy and physical education. Some researchers also suggest that students who are developing their physical literacy within a school physical education program must also be provided with an external outlet to activate their skills in the form of community sport participation.
- Associations between young children's perceived and actual ball skill competence and physical activity, opens in a new tab, Barnetta L, Ridgers N, Salmon J, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 18(2), pp.167-171, (March 2015). A total of 102 children (56% boys, 44% girls) aged 4–8 years completed assessments. The results showed that girls had lower perceived and actual object control competence and were less active than boys. Actual object control competence was positively associated with perceived object control competence and this relationship did not differ by sex. However, neither actual nor perceived object control competence were associated with moderate to vigorous physical activity. Young children's perceived ball skill abilities appear to relate to actual competence. In older children, object control skill is associated with physical activity, so targeting young children's object control skills may be an intervention priority.
- Do perceptions of competence mediate the relationship between fundamental motor skill proficiency and physical activity levels of children in kindergarten?, opens in a new tab Crane J, Naylor P, Cook R, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 12(7), pp.954-961, (2015). It is known that perceptions of competence mediate the relationship between motor skill proficiency and physical activity among older children. This study examined kindergarten children’s perceptions of physical competence as a mediator of the relationship between motor skill proficiency as a predictor variable and physical activity levels as the outcome variable. Participants were 116 children, mean age 5 years and 7 months, from ten schools in British Columbia, Canada. This study found that, on average, perceptions of physical competence were generally positive and physical activity levels were quite high. Motor skills levels were in the mid-range, with locomotor skill proficiency scores higher than object control skill scores. Object control predicted perceived physical competence. The bidirectional relationship between object control skills and physical activity suggests that motor skill development is both an outcome of, and a precursor for, physical activity.
- Early motor skill competence as a mediator of child and adult physical activity, opens in a new tab, Loprinzi P, Davis R, Fu Y, Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 2, pp.833-838, (2015). The authors provide an overview of current empirical research related to early motor skill development and its impact on child and adult physical activity. There is consistent evidence showing that adequate motor skill competence, particularly locomotor and gross motor skills, is associated with increased physical activity levels during the preschool, child, and adolescent years. Early motor skill development also influences enjoyment of physical activity and long-term motor skill performance. The physical education setting appears to be a well-suited environment for motor skill development and strategies that target motor skill development across the childhood years are recommended.
- Contribution of organized and non-organized activity to children's motor skills and fitness, opens in a new tab, Hardy L, O’Hara B, Rogers K, et al., Journal of School Health, Volume 84(11), pp.690-696, (November 2014). This study examined the associations between children's organised physical activity (OPA), non-organised physical activity (NOPA), and two health-related outcomes – fundamental movement skill (FMS) and fitness in a sample of children aged 10-16 years. The authors concluded that both OPA and NOPA are important contributors to children's health-related outcomes. Among the girls, OPA was more strongly associated with both fitness and FMS competency. These findings support the importance of providing children with opportunities to engage in a range of daily physical activities, both organised (school physical education programs and school sport) and non-organised activities (active transport to school, play, and social sport).
- Physical Literacy, Australian Sports Comission, (accessed 7 July 2025). Physical literacy involves holistic lifelong learning through movement and physical activity. It delivers physical, psychological, social and cognitive health and wellbeing benefits. The Sport Australia Position Statement on Physical Literacy outlines our commitment to creating a healthier generation of more active Australians. Sport Australia has identified the physical, psychological, social and cognitive skills people can work on to develop their physical literacy. This holistic learning enables people to draw on these integrated skills to lead healthy and fulfilling lives through movement and physical activity.
- KID DO, opens in a new tab, University of Western Australia/Healthway, (accessed 21 April 2022). Improving the fundamental movement skills of kids aged 3-8 KIDDO offers physical literacy programs and resources for educators, coaches and parents.
- LOOK Study (Lifestyle of Our Kids), opens in a new tab. The LOOK study is a collaborative, multidisciplinary longitudinal study beginning in childhood and finishing in old age. Its main objective is to determine how physical activity and early physical education impact upon quality of life for Australians, not just in childhood and adolescence but right through a lifetime. The LOOK participants were initially 8 years of age when the study commenced in 2005. Participants were measured again at age 10 and 12 years. Over this period of four years in primary school data was collected to measure physical activity, fitness, body composition and nutritional intake; and to determine relationships of these factors with their bone health, risk of cardiovascular disease and Type 2 diabetes, their balance and coordination, their stress levels and body image, and even their academic progress. In 2013 the cohort was reassessed at the age of 15 years. The next measurement phase is the Early Adult Phase planned to start in late 2022 to 2023 when the cohort is 25 years of age. A number of publications have presented the findings from the LOOK Study (thus far).
- Junior Athletics Guidelines, opens in a new tab, Athletics Australia, (updated January 2025). These resources have been developed to assist coaches, parents, athletes, teachers, administrators, and clubs in providing appropriate athletics experiences for children across a range of settings and ages. The FIT Model is an evidence-based framework to help guide the provision of age and developmentally appropriate activities for junior participants with a focus on providing a positive experience that facilitate long term, healthy involvement in athletics and sport.
- How to get kids moving: expand, extend, and enhance physical activity opportunities, opens in a new tab, BioMed Central, YouTube, (10 February 2017). This video summarises research published in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity on the theory of expanded, extended and enhanced opportunities for youth physical activity promotion.
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