Legacy planning

• 2032 Brisbane Olympics – Leverage Opportunities, opens in a new tab [survey], Australian Sailing, (15 November 2021). The announcement of the 2032 Brisbane Olympics is extremely exciting and paves the way for a once in a generation opportunity for Queensland sport to benefit by leveraging the focus on sport that hosting an Olympic games will generate. Australian Sailing will work with clubs and class associations to identify opportunities and define how together we can maximise beneficial outcomes for the whole sailing community both now and well beyond 2032. Winning Gold medals is not the purpose of this conversation- those strategies are in place and already have good traction. The theme of this conversation will revolve around marketing and promotion, instructor/coach/officials’ development, sailor pathways, creating lifelong sailors, retention of youth, club capacity building, mass participation programs, inclusion, etc.
• Defining and measuring social legacies of sport events, opens in a new tab, sportanddev.org, (11 October 2021). What are the legacies of Mega Sports Events, and how can sport for development outcomes be conceived, implemented and measured as sustainable legacies? In the spirit of fostering dialogues and exploring new horizons, SCORE – a Sport Think Action Tank based in Lausanne – organized a SCORE Lab, a meeting which draws on expertise from within and outside of sports to address, in this case, problems and challenges faced by organizing committees, hosts cities and other stakeholders (local population and governing bodies) in the context of sport events legacy (i.e., measurement and communication).
• Creating a sustainable Heritage Sporting Event, opens in a new tab, sportanddev.org, (15 September 2021). Heritage Sport Events, like the Audencia-La Baule Triathlon, may be the sustainable alternative to Mega Sporting Events. An HSE is best defined as “an event, generally involving a single sport, that has taken place in the same place for many years and that has been held regularly since its foundation”. By nature, such events recur on a yearly basis and use or refer to the specific heritage of a territory. This allows host territories to accumulate expertise and consequently develop the event in the long run, taking into account local specificities, generating popular support and media recognition.
• Redefining legacy: How Brock University is maximizing impact from the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, opens in a new tab, Julie Stevens and Sydney Millar, SIRCUIT, (19 April 2021). When we think of legacies from major games, often we think of new facilities, increased engagement in sport and physical activity, or heightened feelings of national pride. As a key partner in the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, Brock University took an additional approach, leveraging the Games to invest in research, build curricular connections, and enhance community engagement.
• Host city and mega-events: Olympic legacy in Japan, opens in a new tab, Professor John Horne, Olympic Analysis, (2021). In this brief commentary I will refer to two distinctions with respect to legacies – that they can be tangible and intangible, but also universal and selective. It is well established that legacies can be tangible, that is related to, for example, changes in some way to the material or physical infrastructure or economic performance, and intangible, that is related to, for example, emotional responses to a mega-event whether individual or collective. Tangible legacies refer to substantial and long-standing changes to the urban infrastructure – the building of iconic stadia being one of the most notable when it comes to the Olympics. The intangible legacies of the Olympics refer predominantly to popular memories, evocations and analyses of specific events and incidents associated with the Games.
• Lessons from the Cricket World Cup: Ticketing Strategy, opens in a new tab, Global Sports, (28 August 2019). Steve Elworthy, the managing director of the ICC Cricket World Cup 2019 in England and Wales shares his experience of devising a strategy to sell tickets for a major event, and how it can help drive the growth of a sport.
• Scaling down the circus to scale up the benefits – A proposed future for international sport events, opens in a new tab, Marijke Taks (PhD), University of Ottawa, SIRCuit, (17 April 2018). As Canada considers bids for the 2026 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games, and the 2030 Commonwealth Games, this article examines the economic, tourism, social and sport participation impact claims of major international sport events. To maximize positive and minimize negative outcomes from hosting major sport events, we recommend a shift in thinking that builds on the opportunities smaller scale events present for host communities.
• Commonwealth Games assets gifted to Queensland communities, opens in a new tab, The Honourable Annastacia Palaszczuk, Premier and Minister for Trade, and The Honourable Kate Jones, Minister for Innovation and Tourism Industry Development and Minister for the Commonwealth Games, Queensland Government media release, (18 May 2018). Millions of dollars’ worth of Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games assets will be gifted to Queensland sporting clubs, schools, councils and community organisations to deliver a legacy to last a lifetime.
• Sydney still reaping benefits of hosting Olympic Games 2000, opens in a new tab, International Olympic Committee, (20 August 2016). While the Opening Ceremony of the Olympic Games Rio 2016 shared a message of environmental protection with the world, sustainability is already a key focus of the International Olympic Committee and Olympic Agenda 2020.

• Sport participation and Olympic legacies : a comparative study, opens in a new tab, Spencer Harris and Mathew Dowling (eds.), Routledge, (2021). This book examines claims that the Olympic Games are a vehicle to inspire and increase mass sports participation. It focuses on the mass sport participation legacy of the most recent hosts of the summer Olympics, including Atlanta, Sydney, Athens, Beijing, London, Rio and Tokyo. It is organised by host city/country and applies an analytical framework to each, addressing the socio-political context that shapes sport policy, the key changes in sport policy, the structure and governance of community sport, the Olympic and Paralympic legacy, and the changes in mass sport participation before, during and after the games. [Held by the Clearinghouse for Sport, GV721.5.S688 2022]
• Legacies and Mega Events: Fact or Fairy Tales?, opens in a new tab ByIan Brittain, Jason Bocarro, Terri Byers, et al. (eds.), Routledge, (2017). This edited book, written by international experts, critically explores these multiple facets of the Mega Event legacy looking at the various economic, environmental and social impacts and benefits in multiple continents. It considers topics such as volunteering, participation, economics, sponsorship, ethics and technology in relation to legacy.
• Leveraging legacies for sports mega-events: concepts and cases, opens in a new tab, Jonathan Grix (ed.), Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan, (2014). This volume offers a panoramic and interdisciplinary view of the growing field of Sports Mega-Event studies. Contributions explore leveraging strategies and the legacies from previous sports megas (London, Seoul, Sydney, Vancouver) and recent and future 'emerging' states and their hosting strategies (India, China, Qatar, Russia, Brazil). [Held by the Clearinghouse for Sport, GV706.8.G75 2014]
• Paralympic Legacies, opens in a new tab, David Legg, Keith Gilbert (eds.), Common Ground, (2011). Legacy remains one of the most important issues relating to multisport mega-events across the globe and it could be argued that the development of legacy is one of the most urgent imperatives in elite sport. In this regard the Paralympics is no exception to the quest for long term legacy; however, little in the way of documentation appears to be forthcoming from the International Paralympic community in this regard. This book reviews the concept of legacy across previous Paralympic Games by providing a series of chapters under the headings of ‘The Paralympic Legacy Debate’, ‘Paralympic City Legacies’, ‘Emerging Issues of Paralympic Legacy’ and ‘Reconceptualising Paralympic Legacies’. The issues arising are discussed in terms of a meta-analysis of the author’s work and offer interesting ideas which if taken up by the International Paralympic Committee, International Olympic Committee, Bid Committees, OCOG’s and major sports could change the face of Paralympic legacy towards the positive forever.
• Benchmark Games: the Sydney 2000 Paralympic Games, opens in a new tab. Cashman, R, Darcy S, Walla Walla Press in conjunction with the Australian Centre for Olympic Studies, University of Technology of Sydney, (2008). This book is the first study of the staging and legacy of a particular Paralympic Games. It documents and analyses benchmarks such as media, the community and infrastructure. [Held by the Clearinghouse for Sport, GV722.2000.C37]

Denmark

• Sport Event Denmark, opens in a new tab is the national Danish sports event organisation, established and supported by the Danish Government. Our vision is to make Denmark the ideal host of major international sporting events. Our experience from hundreds of major events over the last decade tells us we are on the right track. Our solution is to fully integrate the rights holder, the national federation and the host city – creating a powerful partnership for success. Sport Event Denmark, after many years of focused and visible efforts, is viewed as a credible and trusted partner in the sports world. We have succeeded in winning over 80 percent of our international bid campaigns. In addition, Denmark and our capital city, Copenhagen, have been ranked in the Top-12 of the Global Sports Nations/Cities.
• Hosting Winners, opens in a new tab, Sport Event Denmark, YouTube, (18 May 2021). Sport Event Denmark is the national sporting event organisation that bids for, hosts and evaluates major international sporting events in Denmark in close cooperation with national federations and host cities.

New Zealand

• New Zealand Major Events, opens in a new tab. The New Zealand Government, through New Zealand Major Events, works in partnership with the event sector to ensure Major Events benefit New Zealand . In order to meet the Statement of Investment Priority, sports events must pursue high performance outcomes and engage with youth and targeted populations, particularly low participating communities.

United Kingdom (UK)

• Value of Events 2022: The value to the UK of hosting major sporting events, opens in a new tab, The Sports Consultancy for UK Sport, (January 2023). The report was published at Event Partners Day, which provided an opportunity for the UK’s high-performance community, sports, cities and venues to come together to discuss plans to bid for, secure and host even more major sporting events in the coming years. Alongside delivering a direct economic impact of £132m (with Birmingham 2022 data yet to be published), supporting 1,600 jobs and a 6:1 return on investment, The Value of Events Report 2022 sets out how hosting 12 events in 25 cities, backed by government funding, brought millions of people together, united communities and positively impacted millions of people’s lives through spectating, volunteering and community activation opportunities.
• UK Sport outlines mission to create greatest decade of extraordinary sporting moments, opens in a new tab, UK Sport, (May 2021). UK Sport has today unveiled a new strategic plan which is guided by a mission to create the greatest decade of extraordinary sporting moments; reaching, inspiring and uniting the nation. As part of the new strategic plan UK Sport has published the nation’s international event hosting aspirations for the next decade, from the previously announced 2030 FIFA World Cup to over 40 World Championships from sports such as boxing, athletics, wheelchair rugby and taekwondo. In total, the list includes 97 events across 44 sports and spans 46 World Championships. Collectively they represent a potential boost to the UK economy of close to £7bn (6.83bn), would attract over 13 million fans with 95% of the UK population living within two hours of a hosting venue. 71 of the events on the list are dual gender and 22 have already been secured, with a further eight, including the Rugby World Cup (for women), European Athletics Championships, FIFA World Cup, Ryder Cup and FIH Hockey World Cup all undergoing live feasibility studies.
• Gold Framework: Guidance on UK-level support available when bidding for and staging major sporting events, opens in a new tab, UK Sport/Department for Culture, Media and Sport, (March 2015). The Gold Framework sets out how the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) and UK Sport jointly work, under a single framework, to provide support to a range of major sporting events at the UK level. The Gold Framework sets out:
  • the landscape for major sporting events across the UK, and the roles of the key partners and stakeholders responsible for support and delivery;
  • how DCMS and UK Sport will work collaboratively within this landscape to deliver an effective package of support at the UK level, and which complements the wider event delivery landscape in the UK;
  • how the Gold Event Series will operate as a joint DCMS and UK Sport programme covering all major sporting events receiving financial or technical support at the UK level;
  • the typical lifecycle of an event and the demonstration of the support available at the UK level at each stage, including bidding, hosting and evaluation;
  • the principles behind DCMS and UK Sport’s identification of bidding targets and establishing support at the UK level;
  • the support provided by DCMS and Government within England, to reflect that of the other major event partnerships in the Home Nations; and
  • the partners that can assist major event organisers in developing and delivering a sustainable legacy from an event.

• GC2018 Legacy: Beyond the Games report 2024, opens in a new tab, Ernst and Young (EY), (2024). In June 2023, the Department of Tourism and Sport (DTS) engaged the services of EY to prepare the final Post Games Legacy Report (this Report) to assess the benefits against key objectives listed in the associated Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. This evaluation framework was collaboratively developed by the Queensland State Government and City of Gold Coast and other partners. This Report also provides an analysis of lessons learnt and potential considerations for Brisbane 2032 Olympics and Paralympics Games legacy planning. The suggestions for Brisbane 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games legacy planning are centred on two pivotal phases of the process for monitoring and evaluating legacies, setting up a clear KPI framework, and continual monitoring of KPIs. The Queensland Government has advised that they are addressing the recommendations made in this Report through the Brisbane 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games Legacy Strategy, Elevate 2042, and associated Implementation Plans (in development).
• Stepping Up to the Plate: Planning for a Lasting Health Legacy from Major Sporting Events, opens in a new tab, Didi Thompson, Steve McAteer, Nicolette Davies, et al., World Innovation Summit for Health, (November 2020). Legacy planning is often not prioritized when dealing with the many stressful demands of delivering a successful event and can result in a missed opportunity in realizing future health and public health benefits. This report demonstrates how effective planning for these challenges can be leveraged to achieve three primary health goals: 1). Protect health during the event: Protect the health of visitors, spectators, participants and the local population during the event. 2). Establish a health and public health legacy: Plan for the sporting event to deliver assets, change health behaviors, encourage infrastructure investment and develop capacity. 3). Share learning: Codify and disseminate lessons learned to future hosts.
• Vitality Netball World Cup 2019 Legacy Impact Report, opens in a new tab, England Netball, (July 2020). Following the Commonwealth Games and throughout 2019 England Netball focused on raising awareness and building excitement for the Vitality Netball World Cup 2019 within clubs. England Netball ensured clubs were enthused, empowered and equipped to open their doors when interest peaked during the World Cup. Digital assets for use on social media along with practical resources such as welcome emails, guides to effective promotion and top tips to cater for larger numbers were made available freely. In addition, funding was issued to establish 35 new clubs throughout the Biggest Summer of Netball. Each of these received a special Legacy Club logo which they can use for the rest of their history, connecting them back to the Vitality Netball World Cup 2019.
• Ahead of the Games: evaluation report for the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games legacy program, Queensland Office of the Commonwealth Games, Department of Tourism, Major Events, Small Business and the Commonwealth Games, (November 2017). Provides a detailed overview of the projected impact of the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games on various legacy outcomes and economic indicators including: economic growth and tourism; international trade; Queensland businesses; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander initiatives; arts and culture; sport and healthy lifestyles; and engaged and inclusive communities.
• Gold Coast business and the Commonwealth Games: Impact, legacy and opportunity, opens in a new tab, Joan Carlini and Andrew O’Neil, Griffith University, (July 2017). This report seeks to provide clarity around the various opportunities for business resulting from GC2018. It also aims to assist business to set realistic expectations enabling strategic decisions that will drive success, long after the Games has concluded. The report is structured in two parts. Part one provides background and context by detailing the scope of GC2018, lessons from previous global sporting mega-events, and the unique characteristics of GC2018 in relation to the Gold Coast. Part two identifies the macro factors affecting the Gold Coast, and provides an in-depth analysis of the opportunities for business to leverage major benefits from GC2018.
• Olympic Games Rio 2016: The legacy, opens in a new tab, International Olympic Committee, (March 2017). The Olympic Games Rio 2016 delivered many inspiring athletic achievements that were witnessed and shared by a vast global audience through record-breaking media coverage and unprecedented levels of digital engagement. Against a backdrop of economic, political and social challenges, they also set new standards for legacy planning that have left an important heritage
• Olympic and Paralympic legacy: Inspired by 2012 – fourth annual report, opens in a new tab. UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport, (4 August 2016). Report by the UK government and the Mayor of London on the legacy of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. More reports available from the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic legacy archive, opens in a new tab.
• Special Report on Rio 2016: Perspectives beyond the mega-event, opens in a new tab, Simon Marijsse, Politheor, (June 2016). Since the 1984 LA Olympics, the Games have gone hand in hand with attracting foreign investment capital, boosting tourism and constructing large scale infrastructures. Eight Years later, the Barcelona Olympics presented us with an even larger story of visual promise and urban transformation. Post-Olympics Barcelona started to symbolise the blueprint for urban regeneration. In this Special Report, ten opinion articles tackle, each from within their policy field, the changes, failures and new initiatives that occurred over the last months in Rio.
• Snapshot Report - Embracing 2018 Legacy Program, State of Queensland, (2016). This report highlights the substantial work which has been undertaken to date by Games Partners to maximise legacy benefits for the Gold Coast and Queensland from hosting the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games™ (GC2018). In other areas, however, it establishes the starting point from which the Embracing 2018 Legacy Program must succeed in delivering long-term, lasting legacy benefits to the Gold Coast and Queensland.
• Rio 2016 Olympic Games Sustainability and Legacy Stories: a selection of good practices, opens in a new tab, International Academy of Sport Science and Technology (AISTS), (2016). This booklet outlines several initiatives that seek to engage the wider audience on sustainability and legacy. It contains easy-to-understand, positive stories that were collected by the AISTS during the 2016 Rio Games.
• It’s how you play the game: Matching a region’s priorities with the right mega – or not so mega – event, opens in a new tab, Price Waterhouse Coopers, (April 2014). PwC’s publication presents a framework for helping a city or region decide which event to host, based on key questions under the categories of overall readiness, venues, legacy, supporting infrastructure and intellectual capital. The publication then goes on to explore a number of key aspects on hosting sports events, including ways in which a city or region can maximise the impact of hosting events.
• Local Development Benefits From Staging Global Events: Achieving The Local Development Legacy From 2012: A Peer Review Of The Olympic And Paralympic Legacy For East London Proposed By The Department Of Communities And Local Government, United Kingdom, opens in a new tab, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), (2010). The OECD LEED programme has been assessing the local benefits of hosting international events for several years. Local Development Benefits from Staging Global Events (2008) set out the OECD Conceptual Framework through analysis based on experience from over 30 cities and nations. In broad terms, the following are benefits that might reasonably be expected but, of course, are not guaranteed, to result from the hosting of global events. Benefits may be characterised as "primary" and "secondary" to indicate the time frame within which they occur, rather than overall significance. Primary benefits may well overlap temporally with secondary benefits if they are longer-term in nature.
• Local Development Benefits from Staging Global Events, opens in a new tab, OECD Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) Programme, (April 2008). The competition to stage major global events – such as OIympic Games, EXPOs, cultural festivals, and political summits – is more intense than ever before. Longer-term local benefits can be achieved for the host location, including: improved infrastructure, increased revenues from tourism and trade, employment creation and heightened civic pride. However, such positive effects do not occur by accident, or without effective local action. Effective legacy planning and management is essential to ensure that the financial risk of investing in the event pays off, and that local development is boosted in a meaningful way. This book identifies how international events work as a trigger for local development and what hosting cities and nations can do to ensure that positive local development is realised. It reviews experience from more than 30 cities and nations and it looks forward to future events yet to be hosted.

• Governance of Post-Olympic Games Legacy Organizations: A Comparative Study, opens in a new tab, Jinsu Byun, Mathew Dowling, Becca Leopkey, Journal of Sport Management, Volume 37(1), pp.27-38, (2023). This study examines the governance of post-Olympic Games legacy organizations. A cross-case comparative analysis was completed by focusing on post-Games legacy organizations from three Winter Olympics (Salt Lake City 2002, Vancouver 2010, and PyeongChang 2018). Drawing on a governance framework, this research investigates the politics (stakeholder relationships), polity (institutional structures), and policy (the policy content and instruments) dimensions of governance, and explores modes of governance that facilitate collective action taken by these organizations. Data for this study included archival materials and semistructured interviews with key representatives from the relevant organizations. Three different post-Games legacy organization governance modes (public–private, interactive, and self-governance) were identified, and a conceptual model of the governance of post-Games legacy organizations is proposed. The findings have theoretical and practical implications that expand our understanding of the governance of Olympic legacy.
• The world cup trilogy: an analysis of Aotearoa New Zealand’s leverage strategies for the women’s cricket, rugby, and football world cups, opens in a new tab, Julie Brice, Andrew Grainger, Adam Beissel, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 14(4), pp.621-639, (August 2022). A common trend among hosts of women’s international sporting events is to tout the opportunity to positively impact women’s and girls’ sporting and physical activity practices. Yet, many scholars have shown that such ‘trickle down’ effects from the event to society are seldom realised. Nonetheless, organisers continue in their attempts to ‘leverage’ large-scale sporting events to produce a range of positive impacts. Here, we use the extraordinary context of Aotearoa New Zealand hosting the Women’s Cricket, Rugby, and Football World Cups in 2022 and 2023 to consider the potential prospects, pitfalls, and challenges involved in attempting to leverage such events to improve societal and sporting opportunities for women and girls. Through our analysis we present empirical and theoretical challenges (and opportunities) faced by the tournament stakeholders. We end with a critical analysis of the challenges and possibilities hosting three world cups can have on enacting meaningful and important change for women and girls’ sport in Aotearoa.
• The financial challenges of hosting sports events: a problem of insufficient separation between decision-making and decision-control, opens in a new tab, Denis Mike Becker, Harry Arne Solberg, Gaute Slåen Heyerdahl, European Sport Management Quarterly, (3 March 2022). This article aims to explain that poorly functioning separation between decision-making, decision-control, and risk-bearing is a fundamental reason for the financial underperformance of major or large sport events. We look at empirical data from four major sports events hosted in Norway: The 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympics, the 2011 International Ski Federation (FIS) World Skiing Championship, the 2014 FIDE Chess Olympiad, and the 2017 International Cycling Union (UCI) World Road Cycling Championships. All these events suffered financially. Through an examination of the previous literature, our analysis confirms drivers and symptoms of financial problems at sport events. These are: the exaggerated focus on legitimising the event, soft-budget practices, interference by political interests, and so on. We argue that many of these factors could have been handled better if a more consequent separation of risk-bearing, decision-making, and decision-control was in place. We propose a better separation between the decision-making and decision-control function, by means of a permanent and independent entity that is responsible for the decision-control function. Such an institution could enhance knowledge transfer, contribute competence and skills, and improve the financial outcome of a sports events.
• “Winning the women’s world cup”: gender, branding, and the Australia/New Zealand As One 2023 social media strategy for the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2023™, opens in a new tab, Adam Beissel, Verity Postlethwaite, Andrew Grainger, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.768-798, (2022). In this article we critically explore the social media strategy of the successful Australia-New Zealand ‘As One’ joint bid for the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2023™. We explore how the As One bid harnessed Twitter to communicate a hosting vision that appealed to multiple audiences while strategically, and successfully, resonating with contemporary FIFA politics. We adopt quantitative and qualitative content analysis methods to develop the constructed presence and narrative patterns from the As One bid’s Twitter activity. Our findings suggest content relied on two primary ‘legacy’ narratives which both conformed to current FIFA strategy and broader social and regional politics: growing football participation among women and girls and strengthening cultural, economic, and political relations in the Asia-Pacific. Ultimately, we argue the use of Twitter was strategic and targeted, deliberately appropriating popular FIFA narratives to build an emotive ‘legacy’ vision to gain support from voting members of the FIFA Council.
• An evidence-based assessment of the impact of the Olympic Games on population levels of physical activity, opens in a new tab, Adrian Bauman, Masamitsu Kamada, Rodrigo Reis, et al., The Lancet, Volume 398(10298), pp.456-464, (July-August 2021). Pre-Olympic Games predictions commonly include an increase in population-based physical activity in the host city, as often stated in the bid, but the post-Olympic Games effects on physical activity have not been summarised. In this Series paper, we aim to do the following: examine mentions of a physical activity legacy in pre-Olympic bid documentation; analyse existing physical activity surveillance data collected before, during, and after the Olympic Games in hosting areas around the world; and evaluate Google Trends data surrounding the London 2012 Olympic Games as a case study of community interest in the topic of exercise during the time of the Olympic Games. Before 2007, little mention of physical activity was made in pre-Olympic Games documentation, but, after that, most documents had targets for population physical activity or sports participation. The synthesis of available surveillance data indicates that there was no change in the prevalence of physical activity or sports participation, except for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano; although, the increase in participation in Nagano might not be attributable to the Olympic Games since there was no change in participation in winter sports. The Google Trends data showed an acute spike in searches with the term “Olympic” immediately associated with the London Olympic Games period and showed a sustained peri-Olympic increase in searches with the term “exercise”. By themselves, the Olympic Games have not improved population-wide physical activity but might be an important missed public health opportunity. Such a legacy will require strategic planning and partnerships across the International Olympic Committee and the Olympic, sport, and public health agencies and a thorough evaluation framework implemented throughout the pre-Olympic Games and post-Olympic Games period in the host country.
• Leveraging sporting events to create sport participation: a case study of the 2016 Youth Olympic Games, opens in a new tab, Svein Erik Nordhagen, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 13(3), (March 2021). The leverage perspective takes a prospective approach to legacy and focuses on how different organisations use an event as a catalyst to implement their own organisational goals. This paper examines how the second winter Youth Olympic Games (YOG) in Lillehammer in 2016 were leveraged to increase participation in organised and non-organised sport among regional youth. The analytical framework is based on available sport participation leverage literature. This is a case study using interviews with representatives from involved organisations, archival materials and observations as its main sources. The findings show that event organisations, sport organisations and non-sport organisations formed alliances to leverage the 2016 YOG for sport participation with intervention programmes and new infrastructure as the two main strategies. The sport participation legacy outcomes of the 2016 YOG were constrained by a lack of long-term strategies and limited resources made available after the Games. To maximise the sport participation goals, strong alliances and long-term commitments need to be formed among local and regional organisations.
• Challenges and key factors in planning legacies of mega sporting events: Lessons learned from London, Sochi, and Rio de Janeiro, opens in a new tab, Azzali, S., Archnet-IJAR, Volume 14(2), pp.203-218, (2020). The purpose of this paper is to identify replicable best practices and successful examples used in mega-events to transform events sites and venues into livable public open spaces (POS), enjoyed by the local communities. The research identified a framework of six major elements that determine, or contrast, the long-term use of events sites and sport facilities, and highlighted some main attributes to consider in order to transform sporting event sites into livable and enjoyable open spaces. It is expected that this framework can be used as a guidance to deliver sustainable events and long-term legacies and to define a strategy for optimization of planning mega sport events. Mega events provide near-unique, fast track opportunities for urban transformation. This research can be used as guidance for the overall mega sporting events stakeholders, such as the IOC, FIFA, and local organizing committees, to identify replicable best practices and successful examples in the leverage of mega events to transform events sites and venues into livable POS.
• Mapping research on legacy of mega sporting events: structural changes, consequences, and stakeholder evaluations in empirical studies, opens in a new tab, Joerg Koenigstorfer, Jason Bocarro, Terri Byers, et al., Leisure Studies, Volume 38(6), pp.729-745, (2019). Findings from empirical studies on the legacy of hosting a mega sporting event are inconclusive. This paper considers empirical studies published in English language peer-reviewed journals between 1997 and 2016 to identify trends and gaps in current knowledge related to event-attributed changes in structures, consequences, and stakeholder evaluations. Following systematic literature search guidelines, 233 articles (238 studies) were coded. The authors assessed structural changes, consequences, and stakeholder evaluations. Contextual factors, such as type of event, timeframe, and geographical location were also considered, as well as research design, methods, and a risk of bias assessment. Most studies considered structural changes per se, without further specification (such as the urban and human level). Economic and social consequences were the two most often considered consequences. The range of stakeholders considered in the studies was diverse, although host city residents received the most research attention. The mapping helps scholars better understand dominant themes, critically appraise studies as well as identify gaps in existing research. The authors discuss managerial implications and propose research directions that address concerns: unclear definition and biased selection of relevant stakeholder groups, short legacy timeframes, and the low-level evidence for cause-effect relationships in the legacy production process.
• Sport participation from sport events: why it doesn’t happen?, opens in a new tab Marijke Taks, B. Chris Green, Laura Misener, et al., Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Volume 36(2), pp.185-198, (2018). The purpose of this paper is to present and use an event leveraging framework (ELF) to examine processes and challenges when seeking to leverage a sport event to build sport participation. The study used an action research approach for which the researchers served as consultants and facilitators for local sports in the context of the International Children’s Games. Initially three sports were selected, and two sports were guided through the full leveraging process. Prior to the event, actions were planned and refined, while researchers kept field notes. Challenges and barriers to implementation were examined through observation immediately prior to and during the event, and through a workshop with stakeholders six weeks after the event, and interviews a year later. With the exception of a flyer posted on a few cars during the track and field competition, none of the planned action steps was implemented. Barriers included competition and distrust among local sport clubs, exigencies associated with organizing event competitions, the event organizers’ focus on promoting the city rather than its sports, and each club’s insufficient human and physical resources for the task. These barriers were not addressed by local clubs because they expected the event to inspire participation despite their lack of marketing leverage. The lack of action resulted in no discernible impact of the event on sport participation. Results demonstrate that there are multiple barriers to undertaking the necessary steps to capitalize on an event to build sport participation, even when a well-developed framework is used. Specific steps to overcome the barriers need to be implemented, particularly through partnerships and building capacity for leverage among local sport organizations.
• Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park: an assessment of the 2012 London Games Legacies, opens in a new tab, Simona Azzali, City, Territory and Architecture, Volume 4, article 11, (July 2017). The London 2012 Olympics were the first Games with a legacy plan already in execution well before the beginning of the event. This study aims at evaluating the legacies of this Olympic edition, with particular regard to the new public open spaces created and their sustainability. The research carries out a post-occupancy evaluation of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, which is the main output of the 2012 Summer Olympics. Results show good achievements in terms of physical and social integration while the economic impact appears to be the weakest legacy from hosting the Games.
• State strategies for leveraging sports mega-events: unpacking the concept of ‘legacy’, opens in a new tab, Jonathan Grix, Paul Michael Brannagan, Hannah Wood, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 9(2), pp.203-218, (May 2017). This article begins by problematising the notion of SME ‘legacies’ and the benefits they are intended to bring to hosts. The article serves as a general introduction to the papers that follow in this Special Issue. Common to all papers is a concern with the multifaceted nature of ‘legacy’, its meaning to a variety of stakeholders involved in such events and how this impacts policy. The belief in the causal relationship between hosting major events and the realisation of specific legacies – increased sport participation in London’s case, highlighted in this paper – underpinned the United Kingdom’s bidding for, and subsequent hosting of, the Olympics. Thus, this paper serves as a discussion of some of the key concepts in, and assumptions about, the use of SMEs to produce a legacy for the hosting state.
• How to Bid Better for the Olympics: A Participatory Mega-Event Planning Strategy for Local Legacies, opens in a new tab, Eva Kassens-Noor, John Lauermann, Journal of the American Planning Association, Volume 83(4), pp.335-345, (2017). Cities considering mega-event bids should encourage a fully participatory planning process that provides genuine local legacies and is transparent about costs and who will bear overruns. City planners would contribute significantly to bid planning that meets these objectives. Cities should also pressure Olympic organizations to make supportive changes in their selection requirements.
• “Lead Up and Legacy” A case study of the 2015 Rugby World Cup, opens in a new tab, Gareth Jones, Mike Edwards, Nick Passenger, Chapter 12 in Legacies and Mega Events, opens in a new tab, Routledge, (2017). The quadrennial Rugby World Cup (RWC) is an integral part of increasing rugby participation worldwide. In order to leverage the RWC to create a desired participation legacy, strategies must be strategically integrated into the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of the event. From this perspective, The Lead Up and Legacy Strategy of the 2015 RWC provides one of the most well-developed leveraging plans to date. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the plan, which focused on two primary areas: (1) building capacity and (2) increasing participation. The legacy impact within these two areas is briefly reviewed, and the discussion integrates these results within the broader literature on leveraging and legacy.
• Trading legacy for leverage, opens in a new tab, Laurence Chalip, Chapter 2 in Legacies and Mega Events, opens in a new tab, Routledge, (2017). Popular and academic discourse about event legacies emerged as a response to the failed claim that events are good investments for host destinations. By requiring organizers to plan for legacies, event owners could counter such claims, thereby rationalizing their demand on public resources and sentiment. However, the legacy framework fails to withstand conceptual or empirical scrutiny. On the other hand, it has been shown that strategic planning to combine an event into the mix of products and services at the host destination can enable leveraging tactics to foster targeted economic and/or social benefits. Empirically supported models for formulating leverage are available. Their loci of action and policy differentiate them from models of legacy, and make them preferable.
• Paralympic Legacy - Learning from the Sydney 2000 to prepare for Tokyo 2020, opens in a new tab, Simon Darcy, Journal of the Nippon Foundation Paralympic Research, (2016). There are four suggested learnings from Sydney 2000 that may prepare Tokyo 2020 Paralympic games to more strategically address legacy. They are: fostering a relationship with the disability community; developing a Research agenda; educating the population about Paralympic sport; and preparing a culturally appropriate campaign to recruit volunteers.
• Leveraging sport mega-events: new model or convenient justification?, opens in a new tab Andrew Smith, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, Volume 6(1), pp.15-30, (2014). A range of recent studies have shown that the social and economic impacts of mega-events are often disappointing. This has stimulated interest in the notion of leveraging; an approach which views mega-events as a resource which can be levered to achieve outcomes which would not have happened automatically by staging an event. This paper aims to advance understanding about leveraging – by exploring the rationale for this approach and by identifying different types of leveraging and their relative merits. The work critically explores whether mega-event leveraging represents a new approach or whether it simply provides a convenient justification for expensive and controversial mega-event projects. The paper aims to enhance conceptual understanding, rather than to explore a specific case empirically; but a series of examples are used for illustrative purposes. These are drawn from projects adopted in association with the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games.
• Beyond Olympic Legacy: Understanding Paralympic Legacy Through a Thematic Analysis, opens in a new tab. Laura Misener, Simon Darcy, David Legg, et al., Journal of Sport Management, 27(4), pp. 329-341, (July 2013). This paper seeks to add to the body of knowledge surrounding major sport event legacies by examining the largely overlooked area of the Paralympic Games by conducting a thematic analysis of Paralympic legacy research. A limited body of research was found, mainly focused on the Summer rather than Winter Paralympic Games.
• Considering legacy as a multi-dimensional construct: The legacy of the Olympic Games, opens in a new tab, Nola Agha, Sheranne Fairley, Healther Gibson, Sport Management Review, Volume 15(1), pp.125-139, (February 2012). This case follows a sport professional tasked with developing an Olympic bid for their city. Specifically, the case considers various legacy outcomes including: destination image, tourism, cost, venues, housing, and social legacies. The case is written with anonymity of the actual city so that the instructor can adapt the case to a specific city. The case is particularly useful for courses covering sport tourism, stakeholder management, event management, or sport economics and finance.
• Olympic Games Legacy: From General Benefits to Sustainable Long-Term Legacy, opens in a new tab, Becca Leopkey, Milena Parent, International Journal of the History of Sport, Volume 29(6), pp.924-943, (April 2012). This article maps the evolution of the legacy concept over time using bid and final report documentation from Olympic Games host and candidate cities. Examples of modern trends include numerous new legacy themes (e.g. environmental, information, educational); changes in the types of legacy being emphasised (e.g. closer links to city and regional planning initiatives and legacy sustainability), its increasing complexity and interconnectedness found within the typology of legacies, and legacy's overall governance including major influencers and decision makers.

• Major Sporting Events Legacy Framework, opens in a new tab, Australian Government, Office for Sport, (2024). Outlines why the Australian Government supports major international sporting events of national significance in Australia. The framework also provides guidance to sporting organisations seeking government support and helps the government consider which proposals offer the greatest return on investment and broadest legacy impacts and benefits.
• Delivering a Bold Legacy for Birmingham, opens in a new tab, Birmingham City Council, (December 2021). The council’s legacy plan for the event aims to create “A legacy shaped by our people”. Details how the Games can help respond to the main challenges the city already faces, which in itself was a key driver for the council spearheading the successful bid for the right to host the Games back in 2017. To be bold for Birmingham we will:
  • Boost investment in Birmingham, creating thousands of jobs and become a world-leader in hosting international events
  • Engage every child and young person in the Games, including all 400+ schools in the city
  • Build programmes and community projects to kickstart an accessible fitness and wellbeing boom
  • Open our city to the world and connect our communities for and after the Games
  • Launch an era of green growth through high-quality sports facilities, thousands of new sustainable homes and green transport links to become a carbon neutral city by 2030
  • Deliver our promise to the city and become a leading local authority with bold ambitions
• ASPA vision for Olympic legacy, opens in a new tab, Australasian Society for Physical Activity (ASPA), (August 2021). Australia will host its third summer Olympic games. Congratulations to Brisbane. The 2032 Olympics has been pitched as a sustainable and cost-effective event that will leave a growing legacy for Queensland, and Australia. However, Olympic legacy is the result of a vision and action. Olympic legacy includes all the tangible and intangible long-term benefits associated with hosting the games, before during and after the event. The Australasian Society for Physical Activity (ASPA) calls on Australia to be bold and articulate such a vision now. A vision that connects all Australians with the remarkable power of the games. To choose movement for life – The Aussie Movement.
• Legacy Programmes, opens in a new tab, Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games, (2021). Our Legacy Programmes comprise 10 different areas of activity: Business and tourism; Physical activity and wellbeing; Creative and cultural participation; Jobs and skills; Community cohesion, inclusion and pride; Sustainability; Social value; Volunteering; Learning programme; and, Venues and infrastructure.
• Legacy Strategic Approach: moving forward, opens in a new tab, International Olympic Committee, (December 2017). This Legacy Strategic Approach covers the various ways in which the IOC intends to further encourage, support, monitor and promote legacy in partnership with its stakeholders. The four objectives of the Legacy Strategic Approach are: embed legacy through the Olympic Games lifecycle; document, analyse and communicate the legacy of the Olympic Games; encourage Olympic legacy celebration; build strategic partnerships.
• Action and Legacy Plan, opens in a new tab, Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee, (July 2016). To promote actions that will result in positive and long lasting legacies, the Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee is working closely with various stakeholders to promote a range of comprehensive actions from the initials stages of planning in the five following pillars: Sport and Health; Urban Planning and Sustainability; Culture and Education; Economy and Technology; Recovery, Nationwide Benefits, and Global Communication.
• Embracing Our Games Legacy - Queensland's legacy for the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games, State of Queensland, (2013). The Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games^TM (GC2018) is more than a spectacular sporting event to us. These Commonwealth Games bring tangible and intangible benefits to the Gold Coast and all of Queensland that go well beyond the staging of the event. This strategy provides us with a well-structured and coordinated framework to make sure we take advantage of the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity presented by hosting GC2018. Embracing our Games legacy gives the people of Queensland the chance to take ownership of this opportunity.

• Learning Legacy, opens in a new tab, London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, (accessed 24 October 2025). Through this project, London 2012 shared the knowledge and the lessons learned from the construction of the Olympic Park and preparing and staging the Olympic Games. [archived by the National Arhcives UK]
• Embracing 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games The Legacy Program, opens in a new tab [website], Queensland Government, City of Gold Coast, Gold Coast 2018, (accessed 13 January 2023). On our journey towards 2018, there will be opportunities for Queenslanders to be involved in the Commonwealth Games through a broad range of legacy initiatives. While some will compete in GC2018 at the highest level, others will give their time and effort to make the event happen. Some people will be motivated to take up a sport themselves, others will get involved in organising sports for their community. We can all contribute directly or indirectly to building positive and lasting benefits from hosting GC2018. [archived by the National Library Australia, January 2019]