Children
Modified sports programs for children are designed to provide an introduction to the sports they represent.
Modified sports programs for children are designed to provide an introduction to the sports they represent. They allow novice participants, particularly young children, to experience a sporting environment that is interesting and fun.
Sporting organisations recognise that the needs and abilities of children are different from adults and that standard rules and equipment may not be suitable for child participants. Children are also at a different developmental level in terms of their skill, strength, and cognitive ability to make decisions during play or interpret rules. Common sense, as well as the physical and mental developmental characteristics of children, makes it good practice to modify the standard form of a sport to better suit the needs and abilities of children.
Modifying a sport to suit children does not necessarily change the character of the sport (i.e. the skills and qualities that make it unique). In fact, modifying a sport can be an advantage in developing the fundamental components of a sport—such as skill, fitness, tactics, and teamwork—within the context of a child’s capacity to perform.
Modified sports often work on the theory that children will learn and become engaged in a physical activity if they are having fun while participating. Because many modified sports target skill acquisition, they may require a higher level of supervision and instruction than the 'parent' sport. Program delivery is usually facilitated by a community coach, school teacher, or parent volunteer, who may not have the same level of sport specific knowledge as a coach of the senior version of the sport. However, specific training in working with children, as well as an ability to make the activity appealing and fun, will allow instructors to achieve the intended outcomes of modified sports.
Resources and reading
- Scaling junior sport competition: A body-scaling approach? , opens in a new tabNathan Broadbent, Tim Buszard, Damian Farrow, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 39(23), pp.2746-2754, (August 2021). The design of the junior sport competition environment plays a critical role in attracting and retaining children as life-long participants. Critically, however, the guidelines governing the design of junior sport are rarely scrutinized. With this in mind, our aim is to offer sports authorities a method to systematically assess the suitability of guidelines. The most popular junior ball sport competitions in Australia were assessed in relation to the scaling of task constraints and compared to children’s corresponding physical maturation and/or performance measures. This assessment enabled the calculation of pi ratios, which were then used to categorise constraints as either (1) undersized, (2) appropriately sized or (3) oversized. Results revealed that most sports’ ask children to play in oversized conditions, particularly in the under 9 to under 12 age groups and in boys’ competitions. The task constraints that had the highest percentage of pi ratios appropriately sized were match duration and goal size. Comparatively, ball size and field length had the highest percentage of pi ratios classified as oversized. We contend that the systematic approach applied in this article should be used by sports authorities to understand the extent of scaling constraints in junior sport.
- Effect of scaling basket height for young basketball players during the competition: seeking out positive sport experiences, opens in a new tab, Enrique Ortega-Toro, Francisco Javier García-Angulo, José María Giménez-Egido, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 39(24), pp.2763-2771, (July 2021). This study aimed to analyse the effect of reducing basket height on the technical-tactical actions, physical participation, self-efficacy, cooperation and enjoyment of young basketball players in the competition. 51 under-14 male basketball players from four teams were chosen as the sample. The data collection included 2,286 attack phases during 12 matches. All players competed in two tournaments using official basketball rules but different basket heights (official basket height, 3.05 metres, and modified basket height, 2.80 metres). The dependent variables were: a) types of shooting actions, shot efficacy, and shooting conditions; b) the duration, type, number of passes done, and efficacy of the attack phases; c) heart rate values; and d) perception of specific and physical self-efficacy, collective efficacy, cooperation, and enjoyment. The results show that the scaled basket promoted game styles that increased the occurrence of fast-breaks and long positional attack phase. Shot efficacy for all shot types improved (not-significantly) and brought change in players’ specific self-efficacy and enjoyment. These findings show that scaling equipment can help the transition from mini-basket to regular basket (under-14 age group) by generating better conditions for players’ development.
- Play more, enjoy more, keep playing; rugby is a simple game, opens in a new tab, Ben Jones, Ed Hope, Andrew Hammond, et.al., International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, Volume 16(3), pp. 636-645, (June 2021). Competitive Engineering (CE) is a structurally-based competitive climate process designed to create a more positive experience in youth sport. CE encompasses changes to league structures, equipment, pitch-size, and game rules. For example, rule changes that stipulate greater involvement (e.g., playing time) or action (e.g., increasing scoring opportunities) are designed to improve engagement. Despite this, few studies have examined whether CE-based rule changes influence factors known to influence drop out from sport. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a rule change in youth rugby whereby any player selected as part of a match day squad must play at least half a game or equivalent (i.e., the ‘Half-Game Rule’). To achieve this, we studied the influence of the rule change on player reported outcomes throughout the 2017/2018 playing season. Players who “always or almost always” experienced playing at least half a game more often than other players; reported higher enjoyment, than those who played less regularly (F = 35.6, P < .001). Importantly, players who reported higher levels of enjoyment also reported greater intentions to continue playing rugby (F = 6.4, P < .002). Findings support the use of CE to facilitate player enjoyment in team sports and could lead to reduced attrition in youth sport more generally.
- Scaling the cricket pitch to fit junior players, opens in a new tab, Michael Harwood, Maurice Yeadon, Mark King, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 39(1), pp.31-37, (2021).In this study, a method of scaling the cricket pitch length is presented which is based on the age-specific size and performance of the bowlers and batters. The objective was a pitch length which enabled young bowlers to bowl good length deliveries while releasing the ball at a more downward angle, similar to elite bowlers. The steeper release angle has the benefit of reducing the sensitivity of the ball flight distance to the variability of ball release. Based on data from county standard under-10 and under-11 players a pitch length of 16.22 yards (14.83 m) was calculated, 19% shorter than previously recommended for under-11s in England. A shorter pitch also increases the temporal challenge for batters, encouraging a wider variety of shots and improved anticipation skills. Pitch lengths scaled in this way to fit the players’ abilities as they develop will enable a more consistent ball release by bowlers and more consistent temporal demand for batters.
- The effect of equipment modification on the performance of novice junior cricket batters, opens in a new tab, Paul Dancy, Colm Murphy, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 38(21), pp.2415-2422, (June 2020). This study, therefore, aims to determine the effect of increasing surface area of cricket equipment (bats and balls) on batting performance and technique. Forty-three children (Mage = 5.2, SD = 0.8 years) completed a cricket batting task in which they aimed to hit the ball through a target zone while using either regular-scaled, or modified bat and ball with an increased surface area. The number of bat-ball contacts was significantly higher when using the modified (M = 13.81, SE = 0.42) compared to the regular-scaled ball (M = 10.65, SE = 0.49). Batting performance measured as shots played through target areas was also significantly higher when using the modified (M = 31.78, SE = 1.97) than the regular-scaled ball (M = 28.85, SE = 2.27). More desirable technique was also observed when using the modified compared to the regular bat. Findings suggest that further modifications to regular-scaled equipment can enhance skill production.
- Equipment modification can enhance skill learning in young field hockey players, opens in a new tab, JEA Brocken, J van der Kamp, M Lenoir, et.al., International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, Volume 15(3), pp.382-389, (June 2020). The aim of the study was to investigate whether performance of children can be improved by training with modified equipment that challenges movement execution. For that purpose, young field hockey players practiced with a modified and a regular hockey ball. The modified hockey ball enforces more variable movement execution during practice by rolling less predictably than a regular hockey ball and, thus, challenges the players’ stick–ball control. Two groups of 7- to 9-year old children, with 0 to 4 years of experience, participated in a crossover-design, in which they either received four training sessions with the modified ball followed by four training sessions with the regular ball or vice versa. Results show that practice with the modified ball led to greater performance improvement than the intervention with the regular hockey ball. This performance improvement, however, was not predicted by experience and/or initial skill (i.e. pretest score). The findings indicate that by using modified equipment, sport trainers and physical education teachers can, presumably through enhancement of movement variability during practice, stimulate skill acquisition in young children.
- Driveway Tennis: An Example of Sport Teaching via Games Making in Net/Court Games, opens in a new tab, Shane Pill, Mitch Hewitt, Rick Baldock, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Volume 91(2), pp.18-23, (March 2020). This article describes the concept of “driveway tennis” as a construct for student games making in physical education as an option for teaching sport for understanding. We connect the notion of games making in PE with a game-based teaching approach using the example of the Game Sense approach. We demonstrate how the concept of driveway tennis, and games developed by children and young people generally, aligns well with PE curricula expectations internationally.
- Implementation of a modified sport programme to increase participation: Key stakeholder perspectives, opens in a new tab, Buszard T, Oppici L, Westerbeek H, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 38(8), pp.945-952, (March 2020). Modified sports, whereby equipment and rules are manipulated to facilitate skill performance, have been shown to promote skill learning and potentially increase participation. However, it is currently unexplored how key stakeholders - coaches and key figures working in National associations - who are critical stakeholders in implementing and delivering sport programmes, perceive modified sport. This study explored how tennis coaches and key figures working within tennis National associations perceived the impact of implementing a modified tennis campaign on participation and skill development in children and adults. Key figures and coaches around the world completed an online questionnaire. Both groups considered that modified tennis was positively associated with increasing and sustaining participation, skill learning, talent development and people's attitude towards tennis. Furthermore, participants thought that a rule change (i.e., use of a low-compression ball in children competitions) and the campaign's core messages (i.e., "serve, rally, score" and "easy, fun, and healthy") have been critical for the success of the campaign. These results support previous research on the positive impact of modified tennis on skill development and provide a further impetus on implementing modified sports to increase participation. Other sports can adopt similar strategies to improve their modified programmes.
- Designing Junior Sport to Maximize Potential: The Knowns, Unknowns, and Paradoxes of Scaling Sport, opens in a new tab, Tim Buszard, Damian Farrow and Machar Reid, frontiers in Psychology, (8 January 2020). Junior sport is a regular weekend activity for many children across the world, yet many will be required to prematurely play on a field or with equipment that is designed for adults. Herein lies an opportunity for sport administrators to nurture children’s development in sport by appropriately manipulating the rules and dimensions of the game. The aim of this mini-review is to (1) draw attention to the value of scaling junior sport, (2) highlight paradoxes within the current scaling sport literature, and (3) emphasize a way forward for junior sport research. If we are genuine in our endeavor to tailor sports experiences for children, more sophisticated approaches to scaling those experiences are a must.
- The influence of modified equipment in developing skills in badminton, opens in a new tab, Abdul Muiz Nor Azmi, Pathmanathan K. Suppiah, Jeffrey Low Fook Lee, et.al., Malaysian Journal of Movement Health and Exercise, Volume 9(1), (2020). The aim of this study was to examine the effect of modified equipment on skill acquisition among novice badminton players. The participants (24 boys, 16 girls) aged between 7 – 9 years old, without any prior formal badminton experience, were randomly divided into four groups: standard racquet with standard court (SRSC), standard racquet with modified court (SRMC), modified racquet with standard court (MRSC) and modified racquet with modified court (MRMC). Based on the results, the children who practiced using modified racquet with the modified court (MRMC), recorded the highest hitting opportunities and stroke effectiveness compared to the others groups. The participants who practiced using the standard equipment recorded less hitting opportunities and stroke effectiveness during the mini-competition. This study demonstrated the advantages for children playing using modified equipment with a smaller court. By manipulating the task constraints, skill acquisition can be enhanced among children.
- A Shorter Cricket Pitch Improves Decision-Making by Junior Batters, opens in a new tab, Michael Harwood, Maurice Yeadon, Mark King, Journal of Sports Science, Volume 37(17), pp.1934-1941, (2019). This study sought to determine whether playing on a shorter cricket pitch would lead batters to make more appropriate decisions about whether to play front foot or back foot shots. Based on an analysis of the shots played by top order batters against seam bowling in county under-10 matches, an age-specific "good length" region between 5.0 yards and 6.5 yards (4.57 to 5.94 m) from the batters' stumps was derived.
- Girls’ transition from participation in a modified sport program to club sport competition - a study of longitudinal patterns and correlates, opens in a new tab, Rochelle Eime, Jack Harvey and Melanie Charity, BMC Public Health, Volume 18, Article 718, (June 2018). A total of 13,760 female children (aged 4–10) participated in the modified sport in the first year. The majority (59%) transitioned from the modified sport program and into club competition. However the rate of transition varied with age, residential location and socio-economic status, and there was an interaction between region and SES, with SES having a significant influence on transition in the metropolitan region. The peak sport entry age with the highest rates of transition was 7–9 years.
- Scaling Constraints in Junior Tennis: The Influence of Net Height on Skilled Players' Match-Play Performance, opens in a new tab, Vera Limpens, Tim Buszard, Emma Shoemaker, et.al., Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , Volume 89(1), pp.1-10, (2018). The net height in tennis (0.91 m) is approximately 50% of a professional tennis player's height. Children are also expected to play with this net height, even though it is approximately 70% of the average 10-year-old's height. This study examined the immediate effect of lowering net height on the performance characteristics of skilled junior tennis players aged 10 years and younger. Results showed that lowering the net height to 0.65 m and 0.52 m led to players adopting a more attacking style of play, as evidenced by a significant increase in the number of winners without a commensurate increase in errors and more shots struck inside the baseline. Lower nets also led to a greater percentage of successful first serves. The lowest net (0.52 m), however, reduced rally length significantly and therefore decreased hitting opportunities.
- The impact of modified rules on involvement and psychosocial influences on AFL junior football players, opens in a new tab, H. Brownlow, P. Phillips, K. Encel, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 20(Supp1), E121, (January 2017). The use of modified rules increases involvement and is associated with perceptions of enjoyment and competence. Through increasing involvement, modified rules can facilitate more participants to have more opportunity to develop their skills and keep them in the sport for longer through the impact that it has on perceptions of competence and enjoyment. Adults who deliver and support participation in modified rules programs need to be educated and informed of their efficacy.
- Childhood Sports Participation and Adolescent Sport Profile, opens in a new tab, François Gallant, Jennifer O’Loughlin, Jennifer Brunet, et.al., Pediatrics, Volume 140(6), (2017). This study demonstrates that children who specialize in a sport may increase the risk of sport nonparticipation in adolescence. It also highlights that children who do not participate in sports are unlikely to participate in adolescence. In line with current clinical recommendations and supported by these results, the authors recommend that to encourage long-term physical activity participation it is necessary to encourage children to participate in a variety of sports early on.
- The effect of equipment scaling on children’s sport performance: the case for tennis, opens in a new tab, Timmerman E, de Water J, Kachel K, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 33(10), pp.1093-1100, (2015). This study examined the influence of scaling court-size and net height on children’s tennis performance. The results of this study showed that children hit more winners, more forced errors, played more volleys, struck more shots from a comfortable height and played in a more forward court position when the net was scaled. In addition, scaling both the court and net lead to a faster children’s game, more closely approximating what is typical in an adult game. Further, children enjoyed playing on the scaled court and modified net condition more than standard adult conditions. The authors suggest that optimising the scaling of net height may be as critical as other task constraints, such as racquet length or court-size, as it leads to a more engaging learning environment for children.
- Low-cost and scalable classroom equipment to promote physical activity and improve education, opens in a new tab, McCrady-Spitzer S, Manohar C, Koepp G, et.al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 12(9), pp.1259-1263 (2015). This study investigated whether low-cost and scalable classroom equipment that was designed to promote children’s physical activity would contribute to their overall physical activity level. Fourteen (7 males and 7 females) first-grade students (mean age 6.9 years) used the ‘Active Classroom Equipment’ for 30 minutes each day throughout the school year. Their baseline physical activity prior to the intervention was 157 minutes/5-days (Monday through Friday), and following the intervention, 229 minutes/5-days (not including classroom activity time). In addition to the significant increase in overall physical activity, the student’s physical literacy skills improved, as measure by the ‘Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills’ test. The Active Classroom Equipment included an overhead ladder, a balance beam, spinners, rebounders (personal trampolines), hopscotch, and gym mats. The equipment cost approximated $500 to construct.
- Participation in modified sports programs: A longitudinal study of children’s transition to club sport competition, opens in a new tab, Eime R, Casey M, Harvey J, et.al., BMC Public Health, Volume 15, (2015). Modified sport programs are designed as an introduction to sport for young children and provide an opportunity to engage in physical activity for health benefit. This longitudinal study identified trends in participation among children aged 4–12 years. The study explored the different outcomes; including continuation in the modified sports program, withdrawal from the program; or transition to club sport competition. Many of the participants who took part in modified sports programs, especially males, were very young (aged 4–6 years). The results of this study indicated that more children withdrew from their modified sport program rather than transitioning to club competition in that sport. Across all age groups, fewer than 25 % of females (n = 18,652) and fewer than 14 % of males (n = 18,058) transitioned from a modified sports program to a club sport competition within a 4-year period. Very few children continued their participation in a modified sports program for the full 4-year period of the study; two-thirds of those who withdrew did so after the first year. There were also age differences between when boys and girls started, withdrew, and transitioned from the modified sports programs. This study had a number of limitations, it was limited to only three Australian sports, albeit popular ones, and cannot necessarily be generalised to sports in general. Two of the three sports were dominated by males and one by females, although this imbalance did not limit the ability to identify sex differences in the patterns of participation. The results of this study suggest that there is a need for better links between modified programs and club sport competition programs if continuity of participation in a particular sport is to be maintained as children age. The inclusion of an intermediate program within the sport participation pathway, between modified sport and club sport competitions, may assist continuation of participation in a given sport.
- Scaling sporting equipment for children promotes implicit processes during performance, opens in a new tab, Tim Buszard, Damian Farrow, Machar, Reid, et.al., Conciousness and Cognition, Volume 30, pp.247-255, (November 2014). This study investigated whether children who used scaled equipment compared to full size equipment during a motor task demonstrated reduced conscious involvement in performance. Children (9–11 years) performed a tennis hitting task in two attention conditions (single-task and dual-task) using two types of equipment (scaled and full size). A more skilled group and a less skilled group were formed using hitting performance scores. The more skilled group displayed greater working memory capacity than the less skilled group. For both groups, hitting performance and technique were better when scaled equipment was used.
- The Effect of Ball Compression on the Match-Play Characteristics of Elite Junior Tennis Players, opens in a new tab, Kim Kachel, Tim Buszard, Machar Reid, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 33(3), pp.320-326, (August 2014). The purpose of this article was to examine the effect of equipment scaling, through the modification of tennis ball compression, on elite junior tennis players (aged 10 years) within a match-play context. The two types of ball compressions that were compared were the standard compression (the normal ball) and 75% compression (termed the modified ball). Ten boys and 10 girls participated in the study. Participants were stratified into pairs based on their Australian Age Ranking and gender. Each pair played two two-set matches: one match with standard compression balls and one match with modified balls. The characteristics of each match were analysed and compared. The results showed that the use of the modified ball increased rally speed, allowed players to strike the ball at a lower (more comfortable) height on their groundstrokes and increased the number of balls played at the net. Ball compression had no effect on the relative number of winners, forehands, backhands, first serves in and double faults. The results are discussed in relation to skill acquisition for skilled junior tennis players.
- Validation of Playing for Life philosophy for children aged five to 12 years - Full Report - 2013, Australian Sports Commission, (May 2013) This philosophy is based on the game sense approach to coaching. The Active After-school Communities program [2005-2014] adopted the ‘Playing for Life’ philosophy to underpin its approach to delivering sport. Playing for Life advocates a fun and inclusive environment for the introduction of sport and other structured physical activities to primary-school aged children. It also ensures children of all abilities are engaged in the activities and have a positive and successful experience.
- The effects of scaling tennis equipment on the forehand groundstroke performance of children, opens in a new tab, Larson E and Guggenheimer J, Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, Volume 12, pp.323-331, (2013). The purpose of this study was to determine the effects that low compression tennis balls and scaled tennis courts had on the forehand groundstroke performance of children. The participants of this study were found to have enhanced forehand groundstroke performance when using modified balls and court versus standard balls and court. Considering these findings, the authors suggest that children may gain more enjoyment of the game due to their enhanced success. Therefore, modifying the game of tennis may play a vital role in the continued enjoyment and progress of young tennis enthusiasts.
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