Education and employment
Sport can offer a value-added proposition for education and employment, with benefits to individuals and society.
Attaining higher levels of education generally improves employment opportunities and is associated with higher socio-economic and overall wellbeing. 75, 80, 81
Data from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) ‘People with Disability in Australia’ report indicates that: 75
- Around 1 in 10 school students aged 5-18 have disability, with the majority (89%) attending mainstream schools.
- People with disability are more likely to leave school at younger ages and to have a lower level of educational attainment.
- 53% of people aged 15-64 with disability were in the labour force, compared with 84% of those without disability.
- People aged 15-64 with disability were twice as likely to be unemployed (10%) as those without disability (4.6%).
- 10% of individuals aged 15-64 with disability who were employed, were underemployed (i.e. worked part time and wanted to, and could, work more) compared to 6.9% of those without disability.
- 88% of employed people aged 15-64 with disability did not require additional support from their employer to work.
Role of sport
Participation in sport can offer a value-added proposition for education and employment through developing and promoting pro-social behaviours, improved cognitive development, and building critical life skills. 41, 62, 81, 82
While more research is required to determine the strength and mechanisms of the association, current evidence suggests that enabling people with disabilities to participate in sport (e.g. through inclusive organisations and targeted funding, events, and programs) could have substantial benefits to individuals and to society, through increased workforce engagement and economic activity. 84
- A scoping review of research published between 1992 and 2019 found seven studies that showed a direct association between exercise and sport participation and employment. Sixteen studies also showed improved health/work-related outcomes, including: occupational performance, physical fitness, and psychological well-being. The authors suggest considering exercise and sports to a greater extent in employment programs for persons with disabilities. 3
- A 2017 survey of around 300 participants in the United States National Veteran’s Wheelchair Games (NVWG) found that 50% of the participants said that participation in the NVWG made a difference in attaining employment. Those currently working were 1.5 times more likely to say that the NVWG had a positive effect on employment than those not currently working. Those who felt that the NVWG had a positive effect on employment attended 3-4 more wheelchair games on average than those reporting that the NVWG did not have an impact on employment. 83
- A 2016 analysis of data from 131 mobility impaired athletes who played either wheelchair rugby or wheelchair basketball found that playing an additional year of adaptive sport was associated with an approximately 4% increase in the likelihood of employment. 84
- A 2015 study found that adults with a spinal cord injury who engaged in organised sports reported decreased depression and anxiety, increased life satisfaction, and increased opportunity for gainful employment compared with nonathletic persons with disabilities. 6
Resources and reading
- Trisome Games for athletes with Down syndrome set to see Australian Andre Rivett going for gold, opens in a new tab, ABC, (12 March 2024). When Andre Rivett dons the green and gold it means the world to him. The athlete nicknamed "The Hulk" will next week be the only Australian representing his country on the global stage at the Trisome Games in Antalya, Türkiye. The 26-year-old from Woodridge in Logan City, Queensland, will compete with the biggest smile, a secret weapon, and the hope that one day athletes with Down syndrome will be recognised at the Paralympics. His dad, Steve Rivett, said this was the pinnacle event, held every four years, for athletes with Down syndrome. "We strongly believe that if it hadn't been for athletics, Andre wouldn't be the person he is right now," Steve said. "It's taught him to listen to people that he only sees once a month, once a weekend … [and to] officials overseas, where English isn't their first language. "He's just learnt everything and it's just helped him, in real life, to the extent now where he's working at a cafe and he's able to function around the community. He's just grown so much."
- Wheelchair ballkid program promotes inclusion of athletes with a disability, opens in a new tab, Biwa Kwan, SBS, (23 January 2024). An 11-year-old Australian boy is hoping to be the first ball kid who uses a wheelchair at a major tennis tournament - due to a pilot program. It's a development being welcomed by grassroots organisations promoting the participation of athletes with a disability.
- How disabled women athletes are helping mainstream sport clubs become more inclusive, opens in a new tab, Elizabeth Wright, ABC, (11 December 2023). In recent years, Frankston Basketball has struggled to attract disabled people to the club. "We couldn't cater to adults or anybody in a wheelchair or anybody that had a different disability," Ms Thomas said. "It's not the person's disability that stops them from coming, it's the barriers of the programs not being accessible, the people not being trained." To remove these barriers, the club is participating in a national program called the Building Inclusive Sport Clubs Project.
- Brisbane primary school's bid to boost boccia and inclusion for students with a disability, opens in a new tab, Sarah Richards, ABC, (6 December 2023). Sam Thorne knows what its like to watch from the sidelines with no option for inclusion, but it's a fate the 17-year-old is ensuring others don't experience. Sam has "near-complete quadriplegia" and is on a ventilator. They have teamed up with a Brisbane primary school in an attempt to include boccia in the interschool sport competition so students with and without a disability can compete side-by-side.
- Wheelchair sports help to get the ball rolling in game-changing disability employment program, opens in a new tab, Bruce MacKenzie, ABC North Coast, (3 July 2023). A new wheelchair sports program is helping businesses break down barriers for jobseekers with disabilities. Only 54 per cent of people with disabilities are part of the workforce, compared to 83 per cent without disabilities. The program is being led by a former Paralympian who was frustrated at having 'doors shut' on him when he was looking for employment.
- Inclusive sport in schools, opens in a new tab is a Special Olympics Australia program to increase the skills of teachers, coaches, and volunteers to provide better programs for students, underpinned by the principles of physical literacy, creating meaningful experiences that demystify intellectual disability and promote lifelong participation in sport and physical activity.
- Unified Schools, opens in a new tab is an international Special Olympics program to give educators, students, administrators and coaches the power to create a more inclusive world and help end the stigma around intellectual disabilities. Unified Schools begin with Special Olympics Unified Sports® to build inclusive school communities for young people of all abilities. This programming creates an environment where everyone feels welcome, valued, and included both in school and in their local community. These schools can expand their programming to include inclusive youth leadership and whole school engagement in order to become Special Olympics Unified Champion Schools®.
- 94% of schools reported that Unified Schools made a big impact in reducing bullying, teasing, and offensive language.
- Through Unified Schools, over 2 out of 3 students without intellectual disabilities (ID) experienced substantial positive change in interactions with their peers with ID.
- In Kenya and India, 4 out of 5 teachers reported an improved sense of community after participating in Unified Schools.
- People with disability in Australia, opens in a new tab, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), (April 2024). People with disability in Australia brings together information from a range of national data sources to contribute to a greater understanding about disability in Australia. Some people with disability face challenges routinely and actively participating in everyday life areas (such as employment) and are more likely to experience poor health, discrimination and violence than those without disability.
- The Academic and Social-Emotional Impacts of Special Olympics Unified Champion Schools, opens in a new tab, Andrea Cahn, Jacqueline Jodl, Michelle Yin, et al., Special Olympics Global Center for Inclusion in Education, (May 2022). Evaluations of the core components of UCS programming, the most central of which is Unified Sports, have demonstrated impressive improvements in students’ social-emotional skills as well as overwhelmingly positive effects on interactions between students with and without ID, both in the United States and globally. In schools that implement UCS programming, perceptions of problems created by having students with ID in the class—such as students with ID taking up too much of the teacher’s time, or other students’ learning being hindered by students with ID—have dropped dramatically. Our evaluations of the UCS model affirm the transformative role of sports as a medium to encourage social inclusion. Previous research on sports-based interventions in various contexts has indicated that sports can provide a valuable framework for generating strong interpersonal relationships built upon trust and confidence, and particularly for promoting social inclusion.
- Social Inclusion of Students With Intellectual Disabilities: Global Evidence From Special Olympics Unified Schools, opens in a new tab, Michelle Yin, Jacqueline Jodl, Special Olympics Global Center for Inclusion in Education, (December 2021). Through targeted support in 14 countries and territories, Unified Schools has engaged nearly 200,000 youth by providing opportunities for young people with and without ID to participate in a wide range of sporting activities and events. The Unified Schools model creates regular opportunities for the implementation of Unified Sports®, which brings together similarly apportioned teams composed of members with and without ID who train and compete against each other. The evaluation results highlighted in this brief describe the impact of the Unified Schools model on the social inclusion of youth with ID in four countries served by Special Olympics. Though the effect size varied across the participating countries, students with and without ID reported improved social-emotional skills, especially relative to managing relationships and social awareness. Not only did results indicate large positive changes in social-emotional skills, but students without ID reported overwhelmingly positive changes in interactions with and behavior towards students with ID. Positive effects extended to indicators of school culture and climate—including reductions in bullying, teasing, and offensive language—as well as greater awareness of social inclusion as measured by a sense of community and students being proactive in helping others in their school. The most striking finding illustrated that Unified Schools can mitigate and reverse the negative attitudes of peers without ID, which are a leading barrier to students with ID being able to experience inclusive school communities and learning environments. These results suggest a promising path forward to better understanding the long-term impact of inclusive programming on students’ development and behavior towards others, particularly when the students extend their inclusive mindsets (attitudes and behaviors) beyond the schoolhouse to the surrounding communities.
- Sport as a Bridge and Connector Among Youth, opens in a new tab, Jacqueline Jodl, Louis Lauria, Special Olympics Global Center for Inclusion in Education, (September 2021). In this brief we consider the evidence base that supports the potential of sport as an agent of change to create schools and communities of inclusion. We begin with the basics—what do we mean by inclusion and what is the difference between integration and inclusion? We then summarize the extensive body of research that demonstrates the role that sport plays to support youth development, with particular emphasis on one of the most marginalized youth populations - those with intellectual disabilities. Not only does sport promote the development of such social and emotional skills as teamwork, conflict resolution, and respect for diversity, but sport contributes to higher levels of social cohesion and inclusion. The key finding is that the benefit of participation is greater for those who are at greater risk of exclusion and marginalization. We follow with an analysis of the impact that sport can have on the collective—whether that is a classroom, school, playing field or community. If barriers to accessibility are removed, the research indicates sport’s greatest impact may prove to be its potential as an instrument of social inclusion and change.
- Greater frequency of sport participation is correlated with fewer behavior problems among athletes, a more positive coach-athlete relationship, broader community participation, and higher levels of parental support for child involvement. Emerging evidence in the United States indicates a link to improved academic outcomes within schools that implemented Special Olympics programming.
- Well-Being, Resilience and Social Support of Athletes with Disabilities: A Systematic Review, opens in a new tab, Tânia Mira, Aldo Costa, Miguel Jacinto, et al., Behavioral Sciences, Volume 13(5), 389, (May 2023). Sport for people with disabilities appears to play a positive role in the well-being, resilience and social support of athletes with disabilities. Thus, this systematic review aims to evaluate the effect of adapted sport on the well-being, resilience and social support in a population with disabilities. The Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus and SportDiscus databases were used, with several descriptors and Boolean operators. A total of 287 studies were identified through searching the databases. After the data extraction process, twenty-seven studies were included for analysis. In general, these studies show that adapted sport has a positive impact on the levels of well-being, resilience and social support resources for people with disabilities, contributing to their personal development, quality of life and integration into society. Considering the impact on the variables studied, these results are important to support and encourage the development of adapted sport.
- Game Changers: A participatory action research project for/with students with disabilities in school sport settings, opens in a new tab, Daniel Robinson, Sebastian Harenberg, William Walters, et al., Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 5, (April 2023). Although school communities may be required to provide physical education opportunities for all students—including for those with disabilities—the same is not generally true with respect to school sport (i.e., participation in interscholastic or intramural sport programs). Hence, opportunities for inclusive school sport participation are consequently limited. Recognizing the need for continued attention and action in this area, we recently developed and piloted Game Changers—a participatory action research project. Strictly positive findings, among others, relate to the following: improving upon students' perceived competence and autonomy, inviting student voice, identifying and responding to sport participation barriers, and creating genuine sport opportunities within school settings. More undesirable yet informative findings, among others, relate to the following: unachieved intrinsic motivation and belonging, (un)sustainability of sport programs without “interventions” like Game Changers, recreation/leisure as “substitutes” for sport, and a continued want for authentic leadership and mentorship opportunities.
- “I Thought It Was Going to Be Trash”: Rural High School Students’ Disability-Related Perception Change Following Paralympic School Day, opens in a new tab, Cathy McKay, T.N. Kirk, Marie Leake, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, Volume 42(4), pp.728-736, (2023). The purpose of this study was to describe and understand the experiences and impact of the Paralympic School Day program on disability-related perceptions of rural high school students. Ninth- and tenth-grade physical education classes from a rural high school participated in the Paralympic School Day event. Of the 68 who attended the event, 42 students furnished assent and consent to participate. Data from reflective writing responses were analyzed inductively using a three-step approach. The analysis revealed three interrelated themes: (a) “I didn’t expect it to be fun”: preconceptions and reality of trying parasport, (b) “Anyone can play a sport”: developing new perceptions of disability, and (c) “I never realized how blessed I was”: persistence of ableist framing. As a result of participants interacting with and learning from athletes with physical disabilities, they developed an understanding of parasport and a new paradigm through which to view individuals with disabilities.
- The Value of Incorporating Inclusive Sports in Schools: An Exploration of Unified Sport Experiences, opens in a new tab, Roxy Helliker O’Rourke, Krystn Orr, Rebecca Renwick, et al., Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 40(4), pp.629-648, (2023). School sports programs intentionally created for students with and without disabilities may increase social participation of students with intellectual disabilities (IDs). Special Olympics Unified Sports is one program where students with and without ID participate on one team. Guided by a critical realist paradigm, this study explored the perceptions of students with and without ID and coaches of in-school Unified Sports. Interviews were conducted with 21 youths (12 with ID) and 14 coaches. Thematic analysis resulted in four developed themes (identified is outdated language): Inclusion—Is it a “we” or a “they?” Roles and Responsibilities, Educational Context for Inclusion, and Buy-In. Findings suggest students with and without ID and coaches value the inclusive nature of Unified Sports. Future research should explore training for coaches on inclusive practices (e.g., language), and optimal methods for consistent training (e.g., use of training manuals) to foster the philosophy of inclusion within school sports.
- Understanding sport as a vehicle to promote positive development among youth with physical disabilities, opens in a new tab, Amanda McKinnon, Rebecca Bassett-Gunter, Jessica Fraser-Thomas, et al., Journal of Sport for Development, Volume 10(2), (October 2022). Research has explored the benefits and challenges associated with sport participation among youth with physical disabilities (YWPD), however few studies have attempted to understand how sport may facilitate or hinder positive development. Positive youth development (PYD) is a widely used approach to understand youth development through sport, however limited research exists among YWPD. To address this gap, the study adopted Holt and colleagues’ (2017) model of PYD through sport to (a) uncover YWPD’s perspectives on the developmental outcomes associated with organized sport participation and (b) understand perceived social-contextual factors influencing these outcomes. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted among YWPD (N = 9; age between 14-21; seven male participants, two female participants). Outcomes discussed were mostly positive, though some participants reported negative outcomes. Participants experienced positive physical, social, and personal outcomes including the development of life skills. Positive outcomes were largely influenced by a sport climate that was supportive and encouraging, facilitated personal growth and athletic development, and promoted a sense of community and connectedness. These findings further our understanding of the utility of organized sport as a context to promote PYD among YWPD, and suggest that fostering experiences of mastery, belonging, challenge, and autonomy may be critically important.
- The community inclusion of athletes with intellectual disability: a transnational study of the impact of participating in Special Olympics, opens in a new tab, Roy McConkey, Sabine Menke, Sport in Society, Volume 25(9), pp.1756-1765, (2022). People with intellectual disability (ID) are often socially excluded from their local communities. Special Olympics aims to promote inclusion through their participation in sport and more recently through their Unified Sports Program. This transnational study, involving nearly 1000 athletes from 10 countries, examined their community participation through individual interviews using a specially developed questionnaire. Comparable data were also obtained from over 200 non-disabled partners in Unified Sports. Athletes involved with Special Olympics reported less inclusion in local communities than their non-disabled partners. However, there was no significant differences in the extent of inclusion experienced by athletes in Unified Sports or traditional Special Olympic activities. In both these settings, athletes and partners who felt more included when participating in sports were more likely to report greater inclusion in local communities. Future research needs to explore the processes through which sport promotes social inclusion and examine the social networks that are created.
- Dream team – team sports in a community of adults with intellectual disability: How can participation in team sports develop the social competencies of people with intellectual disability?, opens in a new tab Rosita Olvhøj, Tobias Knudgaard Jensen, Jacob Wienecke, et al., Sport in Society, Volume 25(10), pp.2162-2177, (2022). Participation in social communities is vital for all human beings. People with intellectual disability (ID) have fewer opportunities to engage and participate in social communities with peers and are therefore often exposed to loneliness and marginalization caused by social, psychological, and physical challenges. Previous studies describe how participation in team sports and other sports activities provides opportunities to build relationships, have influence, develop communication skills and thereby develop social competencies. Nevertheless, research enlightening how people with ID can develop social competencies through sports activities is very limited. This practice-oriented research project was conducted at a sports school, which offers daily sports and movement activities for adults with ID. The purpose of this study is to enlighten how participation in team sports at the school can develop social competencies in this target group. It was conducted through phenomenological and narrative inspired observations, which were analysed using theories about community, membership, bodily communication, and synchronization between individuals. The results show how team sport gives the students opportunities to experience membership in a social community, develop communication skills, and have synchronized experiences with others who have similar challenges. These experiences with synchronized energies, movements, and emotions, provide them with opportunities to experience valuable social moments with peers, which can form foundations for development.
- Exploring Direct and Indirect Associations of Exercise and Sport Participation with Employment among Individuals with Disabilities: A Scoping Review, opens in a new tab, Azar Varahra, Hiba Ahmed, Sally Lindsay, Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, Volume 32, pp.44-54, (2022). Exercise and sports have many positive benefits for persons with or without a disability. Despite this, the contribution of exercise and sport participation to employment is less documented. The purpose of this scoping review was to provide insight into the direct and indirect associations of exercise and sport participation with employment among persons with disabilities. Six databases were searched (MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, PsychINFO, CINAHL, and HealthStar) from their inception date to March 20, 2020. Peer-reviewed English and French articles were included if at least one outcome measure on employment or work-related outcomes as a result of participation in, or benefits of exercise and sport participation was the focus of the study. The research identified 2796 hits. Of which, 23 published between 1992 and 2019 met eligibility criteria. Seven studies identified a direct association between exercise and sport participation with employment and full-time positions. Sixteen studies reported on improved health/work-related outcomes such as occupational performance (i.e., self-care, functional independence), physical fitness (i.e., upper extremity strength, endurance) and psychological well-being (i.e., self-efficacy). This scoping review highlights that exercise and sport participation have associations with employment and work-related outcomes. Benefits of exercise and sports may be considered to a greater extent, than in the past, in programs that facilitate employment for persons with disabilities. Additional research using longitudinal design should be conducted to further understand the strength of these associations and evaluate whether exercise and sport participation should be incorporated more intensely in vocational programs.
- Managing sport volunteers with a disability: Human resource management implications, opens in a new tab, Pam Kappelides, Jennifer Spoor, Sport Management Review, Volume 22(5), pp.694-707, (2019). The authors examine the benefits and barriers to including volunteers with a disability in three Australian sport and recreation organisations, as well as the potential human resource management implications. The authors draw on interviews with sport volunteers with disability, staff from sport organisations, and recipients of services from volunteers with disability conducted in 2016–2017. Researchers have not previously examined these diverse perspectives, but they are important for understanding how to include and support sport volunteers with disability. Analysis of the interviews revealed a wide range of benefits of including volunteers with disability including social acceptance, social inclusion and personal development; but both volunteers and organisations identified numerous barriers to volunteering, including negative attitudes, personal factors, organisational factors and lack of social inclusion. Based on the results of this study, the authors develop recommendations for human resource management practices and policies to support volunteers with a disability in sport and recreation organisations, which are organised around an ability-motivation-opportunity framework. The results suggest that organisations need to create an environment that facilitates open, two-way communication with volunteers with a disability about their needs and wants. There also should be training and education to all volunteers and staff around an inclusive workplace culture.
- Positive Impact of Participation in Wheelchair Rugby: A Review of the Literature, opens in a new tab, Nathan Perkins, Palaestra, Volume 32(2), (August 2018). This article examines wheelchair rugby participation, activities of daily living, and self-efficacy among individuals with physical disabilities. Participation in wheelchair rugby is beneficial for individuals with physical disabilities in relation to performing activities of daily living. Generally, activities of daily living are very problematic for a majority of individuals with physical disabilities. Individuals with physical disabilities who participate in wheelchair rugby have high self-efficacy beliefs in performing activities of daily living. Also, selfefficacy beliefs are associated with sport performance. Finally, provided are recommendations for additional participation in wheelchair rugby and future research.
- Effects of a School-Based Sports Program on Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Cardiometabolic Health in Youth With Physical Disabilities: Data From the Sport-2-Stay-Fit Study, opens in a new tab, Maremka Zwinkels, Olaf Verschuren, Astrid Balemans, et.al., frontiers in Pediatrics, (26 March 2018). This controlled clinical trial included 71 children and adolescents from four schools for special education [mean age 13.7 (2.9) years, range 8–19, 55% boys]. Participants had various chronic health conditions including cerebral palsy (37%), other neuromuscular (44%), metabolic (8%), musculoskeletal (7%), and cardiovascular (4%) disorders. Before recruitment and based on the presence of school-based sports, schools were assigned as sport or control group. School-based sports were initiated and provided by motivated experienced physical educators. The sport group (n = 31) participated in a once-a-week school-based sports program for 6 months, which included team sports. The control group (n = 40) followed the regular curriculum. Anaerobic performance was assessed by the Muscle Power Sprint Test. Secondary outcome measures included aerobic performance, VO2 peak, strength, physical activity, blood pressure, arterial stiffness, body composition, and the metabolic profile. A significant improvement of 16% in favor of the sport group was found for anaerobic performance (p = 0.003). In addition, the sport group lost 2.8% more fat mass compared to the control group (p = 0.007). No changes were found for aerobic performance, VO2 peak, physical activity, blood pressure, arterial stiffness, and the metabolic profile.
- Perception of Employment by the Veterans Participating in the National Veterans Wheelchair Games: A Survey Study, opens in a new tab, William Kim, Leah Lee, Daniel Lans, et.al., PM&R, Volume 10(3), pp.263-268, (March 2018). Employment in those with disability is an important rehabilitation goal, along with achieving some measure of functional independence and is at the same time one of the most difficult goals to achieve. The number of people with disabilities participating in adaptive sports has been increasing steadily over the years. A few studies have looked at the relationship between physical fitness and employment status in those with disability, but there have been no studies that focused on the results of organized adaptive sports events affecting employment outcome. Veterans who participated at the 2015 NVWG were given the opportunity to complete a 2-page survey. Survey participants received $5.00 gift card as compensation. A total of 338 survey participants; 36 surveys were excluded due to incompletion. 50% of the participants stated that the NVWG made a difference in attaining employment. Those currently working were 1.5 times more likely to say that the NVWG had a positive effect on employment than those not currently working. Those who felt that the NVWG had a positive effect on employment attended 3-4 more wheelchair games on average than those reporting that the NVWG did not have an impact on employment.
- "I think I became a swimmer rather than just someone with a disability swimming up and down:" Paralympic athletes perceptions of self and identity development, opens in a new tab, Pack, Stephen; Kelly, Sasha; Arvinen-Barrow, Monna, Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 39(20), pp.2063-2070, (September 2017). The purpose of this study was to explore the role of swimming on Paralympic athletes' perceptions of self and identity development. During semi-structured interviews, five Paralympic swimmers (aged 20-24 years) were asked questions about their swimming career, perceptions of self, integration, and impairment. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis yielded three superordinate themes: (a) "One of the crowd"; none of the participants viewed themselves as disabled, nor as supercrips; these perceptions stemmed from family-, school-, and swimming-related experiences, (b) "Becoming me"; participation in swimming facilitated self- and social-acceptance, and identity development, and c) "A badge of honor"; swimming presented opportunity to present and reinforce a positive identity. Swimming experiences enabled the participants to enhance personal and social identities, integrate through pro-social mechanisms, and to develop a career path following retirement from competition.
- The effect of adaptive sports on employment among people with disabilities, opens in a new tab, Amy Lastuka, Michael Cottingham, Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 38(8), pp.742-748, (2016). The purpose of this study is to analyse the role of adaptive sport in predicting employment for individuals with physical disabilities. Survey data was collected on employment and other covariates including education, age, age at disability onset, veteran status and athletic classification from 140 mobility impaired athletes who play either wheelchair rugby or wheelchair basketball. One hundred and thirty-one participants were studied. Analysis shows that playing an additional year of adaptive sport is associated with an approximately 4% increase in likelihood of employment. Education and duration of disability are found to be positive predictors of employment, while veteran status and severity of injury are negative predictors of employment. Age of disability onset is not found to be a predictor of employment when other controls are included. This result indicates that a substantial economic benefit would result from increased participation in adaptive sport, and therefore may justify additional funding to expand adaptive sport programs.
- Impact of Organized Sports on Activity, Participation, and Quality of Life in People With Neurologic Disabilities, opens in a new tab, Sahlin KB; Lexell J, PM&R: the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation, Volume 7(10), pp.1081-1088, (October 2015). Physical activity and exercise is the mainstay of chronic disease prevention and health maintenance for all people with and without a disability, and clear evidence exists of the benefits among various populations with neurologic disabilities. However, the potential benefits of organized sports for people with neurologic disabilities are not as well explored. In this narrative review, current evidence regarding the impact of organized sports on activity, participation, and quality of life in people with neurologic disabilities of all ages is summarized, and facilitators of and barriers to participation in sports for this population are discussed. The articles reviewed were divided into 2 sets: (1) children and adolescents and (2) adults. The subjects of almost all of the studies were persons with a spinal cord injury. Children and adolescents with a disability who engaged in sports reported self-concept scores close to those of able-bodied athletes, as well as higher levels of physical activity. Adults with a spinal cord injury who engaged in organized sports reported decreased depression and anxiety, increased life satisfaction, and increased opportunity for gainful employment compared with nonathletic persons with disabilities. General facilitators, regardless of age, were fitness, fun, health, competence, and social aspects, whereas overall barriers were lack of or inappropriate medical advice and facilities, decreased self-esteem, poor finances, dependency on others, and views held by others.
- Participation in Organized Sports Is Positively Associated with Employment in Adults with Spinal Cord Injury, opens in a new tab, Blauwet, Cheri; Sudhakar, Supreetha; Doherty, Ashley, et.al., American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Volume 92(5), pp.393-401, (May 2013). In the adults with chronic spinal cord injury, participation in organized sports was positively associated with employment. Further studies are necessary to determine the causative nature of this association and how various factors related to sports participation may contribute.
- The Paralympic Movement: Using Sports to Promote Health, Disability Rights, and Social Integration for Athletes With Disabilities, opens in a new tab, Cheri Blauwet, Stuart Willick, PM&R, Volume 4(11), pp.851-856, (November 2012). Competitive sports for people with disabilities has grown rapidly over the past several decades, and opportunities for participation are increasingly available throughout the spectrum from developmental to elite. The Paralympic Games, seen as the pinnacle sporting event that represents the broader Paralympic Movement, has provided a platform to showcase the abilities of people with disabilities while also serving as a catalyst for disability rights through ensuring integration, equality of opportunity, and accessibility of the built environment. Concurrently, media coverage of the Paralympic Games has led to an increased awareness of opportunities for sport participation for individuals with disabilities and, with it, the adjustment of norms regarding expectations for exercise as a component of preventive health. In addition, there is evidence of the power of sports to stimulate confidence, self-efficacy, and a self-perceived high quality of life for individuals with disabilities above and beyond the basic benefits to cardiometabolic fitness. When taken together, the promotion of health, disability rights, and social integration through sports has the power to transform the lives of those who participate and to further stimulate the expansion of opportunities available to the next generation of athletes with disabilities.
- Teachers – Including Students with Disability in School Sport, opens in a new tab, Australian Sporting Alliance for People with a Disability (ASAPD), (accessed 17 July 2025). This course will inform you about the many options, benefits and impacts of sport and physical activity and how you can help students with disability get involved so that they can participate in the community, build their capacity, and reach their goals. You will get practical tools and tips hear valuable experiences and advice from individuals with disability and teachers providing confidence to support students to access sport and physical activity options and pathways.
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