Enjoyment

Enjoyment, having fun, and social engagement are all important motivators and facilitators of engaging in sport.
Enjoyment, having fun, and social engagement are all important motivators and facilitators of long-term engagement in sport and physical activity. 1, 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22, 25, 45, 48, 133
However, people with disability often report feeling less enjoyment of sport or physical activity than their peers without disability. 5, 45, 48, 52, 66, 133
Reasons for not enjoying sport can include:
Stigma or negative attitudes towards persons with disability participating. 3, 18, 33, 35, 53, 65, 66
Physical literacy (not being or feeling confident or competent, lower self-efficacy). 1, 3, 5, 16, 45, 52
Fear of failure or being judged, belief that sport is always competitive and/or not for ‘people like me’. 5, 45, 52, 54
To increase long-term engagement in, and enjoyment of, sport, some ideas include: 9, 18, 20, 31, 35, 50, 61, 65
Focus on creating welcoming and inclusive organisations and programs.
Include people with disability in planning and running events and competitions.
Help participants to develop their skills and mastery in supportive and non-judgemental environments.
Resources and reading
Removing barriers and bringing back the enjoyment factor in disability sport, opens in a new tab, sportanddev.org, (25 November 2020). A research study across three universities in UK found that barriers to sport and physical activity participation for persons with disabilities included cost of transport and activities, ineffective communication and advertisement, preconceived images of sport as competitive and judgmental, and anxieties about sporting abilities. Perhaps the most significant barrier, and the main challenge for future provision, is that many persons with disabilities have not enjoyed, or perceive that they will not enjoy, partaking in sport and physical activity.
Adapting Sport and Physical Activity for Individuals with IDD: Highlighting a Decade of Inclusion and Outcomes, opens in a new tab, Jordan Deneau, Kelly Carr, Chad Sutherland, et.al., SIRC, (4 October 2020). Adults with intellectual and developmental disability (IDD - including autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay) tend to engage in lower levels of physical activity compared to the typically developing population, and thus experience poor health and physical fitness. There are many barriers to physical activity for these individuals, including physiological factors, lack of self-confidence, transportation issues, financial limitations, lack of awareness of options, negative supports from caregivers and decision-makers, and the absence of clear policies for engaging in regular activity in residential and day service programs. Key facilitators to physical activity may include enjoyment, support from others, social contact and friendship, familiarity, and a consistent routine of daily activities.
Lack of online access a barrier for athletes with disabilities: study, opens in a new tab, University of Alberta, (30 September 2020). Despite overtures to the contrary, para-athletes remain largely invisible within the vast majority of Canadian athletics websites, according to a University of Alberta study showing access to sport for people with disabilities is all but completely missing online. "The assumption is that it has to do with the motivation and desire of a person with disabilities," said Peers, whose previous research shows the structural barriers to participation are so massive, there is no way to even begin to assess the role of attitudes and motivation. "The good sites were not only easy to navigate, they articulated the barriers that they're actively trying to challenge." The solutions to common barriers included providing free or inexpensive rental equipment, ensuring facilities are accessible and ensuring coaches have experience or training in supporting athletes with disabilities.
Culture of competition discourages some kids from sport, opens in a new tab, Victoria University media release, (6 May 2019). A study of Aussie sports clubs finds that a culture of competitiveness is preventing kids from diverse backgrounds and abilities from participating in junior sport. The research also showed that many clubs were uncertain about the concept and how it related to them, or how to actively promote diversity and social inclusion. Some other key findings included: Diversity was often viewed as diverting resources from a club’s core business, which revolved around organising teams and improving playing skills; Clubs that actively promoted diversity were generally regarded by coaches and parents from outside clubs as not serious clubs, and suitable only for children who were ‘no good’ at sport; Men at clubs that focused on competition above participation were, on average, more likely to be homophobic, endorse stricter gender roles, enforce violence as a natural masculine trait, and were less likely to hold pro-disability attitudes.
Breaking Barriers: Supporting Disabled Teenage Girls to be Active Research, opens in a new tab, Access Sport, (May 2024). The unique experiences of disabled teenage girls can be lost when viewed through research focused solely on girls or disabled young people. The goal of this research was to understand their experiences so that we can create engaging sport and exercise offers that work for them. The research used surveys and focus groups with teenage girls in the UK, aged 11-19 years, who had a disability or impairment; a long-term health condition; and/or a neurodiverse condition, to explore disabled teenage girls’ experiences, attitudes and barriers towards sport and exercise. Some key findings included: Disabled teenage girls understand the benefits of being active (81%) and identified several different reasons why being active is important to them. Feeling good about themselves (74%), having fun and feeling happy (74%), and good mental health (74%) were highly rated by disabled teenage girls.
Disabled teenage girls are frustrated by the lack of suitable opportunities outside of school and struggle to enjoy sport in school, making provision outside school even more important.
Only 41% of disabled teenage girls enjoy PE and just 39% feel comfortable joining in sport and exercise at school or college. This is a concern as we know PE and school sport can be foundational in shaping young people’s relationships with being active.
Girls-only opportunities help girls find joy in sport and, for disabled teenage girls, participating with other disabled girls is important.
Coaches and instructors need to understand the support needs of disabled teenage girls to prevent girls from having a negative experience or being excluded all together.
Disabled teenage girls want to take part in a judgement-free environment where fun is prioritised, and coaches, volunteers and teachers play an important role in creating this environment for them.
Annual Disability and Activity Survey 2022-23, opens in a new tab, Activity Alliance (UK), (June 2023). The fourth Annual Disability and Activity Survey report for 2022-23. The survey is the primary source of insight for organisations working to achieve fairness for disabled people in sport and activity. Key findings include: Disabled people were more likely to say they wanted to be more active compared to non-disabled people (77% vs 54%). This “activity gap” has remained consistent in previous years, showing an ongoing unmet need.
Nearly two-thirds of disabled people who felt lonely agreed that being active could help them feel less lonely (65%).
Disabled people were half as likely to ‘see people like me’ playing and working in sport and physical activity. (22% compared to 44% of those without disability)
People with disability were less likely to 'see people like me playing sport and being active' (32% compared to 65% of people without disability).
12% of disabled people wanted the opportunity to become a coach or have a role in delivering physical activity (vs 17% of non-disabled people). This increased to 26% of disabled people who were taking part in organised activities, and to 31% of young disabled people.
EVERYONE CAN: The experiences and expectations of the 1 in 5, making physical activity accessible and welcoming for all, opens in a new tab, UK active, (2022). There is a clear commercial opportunity for the physical activity sector. The economic value of the ‘purple pound’ is worth £249bn per year, and four in five (81%) of disabled adults want to do more physical activity than they currently engage in. Like many, disabled people (70%) are motivated to be active as a way of either improving or maintaining their physical health. The physical activity sector has an essential role in narrowing the disparities and inequalities faced by disabled people today. ukactive’s vision is to support and help develop a sector that is freely accessed and utilised by all, enabling everyone to be active and participate in whatever capacity they wish. Our sector wants to continue improving the standards for disabled people in every community.
Disability Sport Review, opens in a new tab, R.C. Richard Davidson, Gayle McPherson, Observatory for Sport in Scotland, (August 2021). While the barriers and motivations for sport participation for people with a disability are broadly similar to those without a disability there are some additional barriers in terms of accessibility, physical and mental health directly related to disability, lack of opportunity and pain. It also seems that disabled sport participation is less focused on competition but more on the physical health benefits, fun and social interaction, despite the best efforts of some key organisations in Scotland. It is likely that there are examples of successful interventions to increase disabled sport participation from the good works of Scottish Disability Sport but there is no central database for these examples nor has there been a systematic analysis on these interventions to establish best practice. However, there is no good quality data on the specific barriers and motivations for sport participation in Scotland particularly across different disabled groups and thus this is a key gap in our knowledge required to underpin policy and strategy.
How inclusive are SA sport clubs? A study into the attitudes and behaviours of members from South Australian mainstream sporting clubs, opens in a new tab, Katrina Ranford, Inclusive Sport SA, (June 2019). In 2018 Inclusive Sport SA was successful in securing a two-year Information Linkages and Capacity Building Project funded by the National Disability Insurance Agency, with the agenda to increase capability of the sector and grow active participation of people with disability (PWD) in mainstream sporting clubs and associations. A pillar of this project saw the consultation with Sport bodies and their members to understand the current landscape with regard to inclusive practices and in particular including people with disability in mainstream sporting clubs. Some key findings include that if we want inclusion in sport and society to grow a three-point journey to success is recommended. This includes spending time looking at education and training for deliverers of sport and recreation; for the sector to take accountability of delivering an inclusive environment; and an increase in visibility of people with a disability fulfilling roles in our mainstream clubs. Only then will we shift the perception of PWD participating in mainstream club land from inspirational or odd to everyday, ordinary sporting life.
Spotlight on Disability, opens in a new tab, Sport NZ, (December 2018). This spotlight report focuses on understanding the impact of impairments on participation by highlighting the differences and similarities between disabled and non-disabled people’s participation. One of the key findings is overall, disabled people are less likely to participate weekly in play, active recreation or sport. The gap for young people occurs between ages 5 and 7. Weekly participation is matched between ages 8 and 24. From age 25-plus, disabled adults’ participation is lower than for non-disabled adults. Participation continues to decline with increasing age, in contrast with a relatively stable picture for non-disabled adults up until 75-plus. When participating in PE, disabled young people are less likely to enjoy the experience than non-disabled young people. Sixty-seven per cent of disabled young people enjoy PE, compared with 81 per cent of non-disabled young people.
Motivation: Disabled young people are more likely to participate for fitness or health and less likely to participate for fun, compared with non-disabled young people. There is no difference in the rank order of participation motivations between disabled and non - disabled adults. Disabled adults are more likely to participate to meet people or be part of a group than nondisabled. This is particularly the case between ages 25 and 34 when participation among disabled adults begins to decline.
Barriers: Disabled people share the top two barriers to participation: lack of time and low levels of motivation. Although, in comparison with non-disabled people, time is less of a barrier for disabled people, and poor motivation is more of a barrier. Disabled people aged between 15 and 24 are more likely to cite lack of motivation, not having the equipment needed to participate, family unable to afford, location of facilities or spaces, no one to be active with and not wanting to fail as barriers to participation. Disabled young people with an impairment in communicating, mixing with others or socialising identify the most barriers, score highest on lack of motivation as a barrier and are less likely to participate in competitive sports and activities Disabled people with an impairment in walking, lifting or bending impairment are more likely to want to increase their participation. Disabled adults have more barriers than non-disabled adults. Poor health increases with age and is more marked as a barrier for disabled adults from age 50-plus. It is from age 50-plus that injury as a barrier begins to decline and poor health increases. Levels of confidence vary among disabled young people, with those aged between 8 and 11 low in confidence to participate and those aged between 12 and 14 more confident in their ability to participate. Not having the equipment is more of a barrier for young people with a walking, lifting or bending impairment. Young people with this impairment have a strong appetite to increase their participation.
Physical literacy: Disabled people have poorer results than non-disabled people in all six domains of physical literacy, with the biggest gap for disabled people on confidence, competence and opportunity to take part in activities of their choice, compared with non-disabled. There are differences in physical literacy by age and impairment. The widest gap in physical literacy among disabled young people is between ages 8 and 11 and disabled people with a communication, mixing with others and socialising impairment.
Seven Themes of Successful Physical Activity Programs for People with Disabilities, opens in a new tab, Canadian Disability Participation Project, (February 2018). We found were seven clear themes of all successful recreational and exercise programs designed for people with physical disabilities. We further determined strategies that all PA and recreation specialists can employ to ensure each theme is incorporated in their programs offered to people with disabilities. Themes were: Programmers must recognize that “one size does not fit all”; Communication is important; Participants need social support; Programs need to teach behavioural strategies for managing physical activity; Participants are eager for knowledge on exercise and disability; Programs can provide opportunities for participants to reframe thoughts about exercise and the self; Programs provide important benefits for health and well-being.
Evidence-Based Strategies for Building Quality Participation in Sport for Children, Youth, and Adults with a Disability, opens in a new tab, Canadian Disability Participation Project, (2018). There are three main categories in which strategies to facilitate the building blocks can be implemented: (1) the physical environment (e.g., accessibility), (2) the program environment (e.g., how sport tasks are designed), and (3) the social environment (e.g., coaches, family, peers, volunteers). While all of these strategies may contribute to the creation of quality experiences in parasport, some of these strategies are also necessary for any form of participation to occur (i.e., access and opportunity to participate). In total, 25 evidence-informed strategies have been linked to one or more of the six building blocks of quality experiences. These strategies are the foundation of a quality experience. This supporting evidence is outlined briefly in the pages that follow.
Overcoming barriers to participation, opens in a new tab, British Blind Sport, (2014). Sport and recreational activities can enhance the lives of people with visual impairments by improving their health and increasing social interaction. British Blind Sport conducted a survey to understand how blind and partially sighted people overcome barriers to participation in sport, and to understand the motivations of visually impaired people for taking up sport. Telephone interviews and focus groups were used to collect data. This report identifies a number of motivations as well as barriers. Practical solutions are offered to help visually impaired persons, and organisations providing services to them, overcome the barriers. Case studies are also provided.
Barriers to Physical Activity for Women with Physical Disabilities: A Systematic Review, opens in a new tab, Jurgi Olasagasti-Ibargoien, Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro, Patxi León-Guereño, et al., Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, Volume 8(2), 82, (June 2023). Physical activity is essential for women with physical disabilities. This review aims to identify the barriers they face in practicing sport. A systematic review was conducted using the PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science databases in January 2023, with an update in March 2023. This review identified different barriers, grouped into eight types according to the differentiating factor, thus showing that disable people’s participation in physical activity is directly related to some specific barriers which seem to differ according to their gender. Therefore, the success of participation in physical activities depends not only on the user’s concern, but also on an inclusive social environment.
Game Changers: A participatory action research project for/with students with disabilities in school sport settings, opens in a new tab, Daniel Robinson, Sebastian Harenberg, William Walters, et al., Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 5, (April 2023). Although school communities may be required to provide physical education opportunities for all students—including for those with disabilities—the same is not generally true with respect to school sport (i.e., participation in interscholastic or intramural sport programs). Hence, opportunities for inclusive school sport participation are consequently limited. Recognizing the need for continued attention and action in this area, we recently developed and piloted Game Changers—a participatory action research project. Strictly positive findings, among others, relate to the following: improving upon students' perceived competence and autonomy, inviting student voice, identifying and responding to sport participation barriers, and creating genuine sport opportunities within school settings. More undesirable yet informative findings, among others, relate to the following: unachieved intrinsic motivation and belonging, (un)sustainability of sport programs without “interventions” like Game Changers, recreation/leisure as “substitutes” for sport, and a continued want for authentic leadership and mentorship opportunities.
Investigating Strategies Used to Foster Quality Participation in Recreational Sport Programs for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Perceived Importance, opens in a new tab, Emma Streatch, Natasha Bruno, Amy E. Latimer-Cheung, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 40(1), pp.86-104, (2023). Quality experiences in sport programming for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can promote physical and psychosocial benefits and long-term quality participation (QP). Unfortunately, children with ASD often experience sport participation barriers and, consequently, participate less in sport compared with children without disabilities. This study investigated QP priorities and strategies that could foster QP for children with ASD. Caregivers (n = 13), volunteers (n = 26), and staff (n = 14) involved in sport programming for children with ASD rated experiential elements of QP using the Measure of Experiential Aspects of Participation. In addition, a two-round Delphi survey with staff (Round 1: n = 11; Round 2: n = 13) generated 22 strategies for promoting QP—each rated highly with regard to importance (5.69–6.85 on a 7-point scale). Strategies were substantiated with published research evidence. Findings informed the development of a QP tool designed to help instructors implement identified strategies in hopes of improving sport experiences for children with ASD.
Optimising health equity through para sport, opens in a new tab, Kristina Fagher, Stephanie DeLuca, Wayne Derman, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 57(3), pp.131-132, (2023). Barriers to sports participation include poor knowledge of para sport (eg, which sports are available, how to find opportunities or train), lack of social support, poor accessibility to training facilities, lack of equipment and the devaluation of para sport across society. An additional concern is the inequity in financial support for para sport, especially in low-resourced environments. Even in high-income countries, para sport is often underfunded in comparison to elite sport for athletes with no disability, and data have shown that Paralympic athletes do not have the same opportunities as Olympic athletes. This inequity begins early in life given that children with a disability are often excluded from physical education sessions or marginalised within the school sports system. This editorial aims to promote health equity through para sport by highlighting such health disparities for the Sports and Exercise Medicine (SEM) community.
Adaptive Sports in Spinal Cord Injury: a Systematic Review, opens in a new tab, Ramsey Rayes, Charlotte Ball, Kenneth Lee, et al., Current Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Reports, Volume 10, pp.145-153, (2022). Adaptive sports (AdS) have been shown to have positive health benefits as well as positive psychosocial benefits. Para-athletes often must overcome a variety of barriers to participation, such as transportation, accessibility, and socioeconomic factors. Facilitators to participation have also been identified, including pre-injury interest in sports, male sex, younger age, and more. In addition to well-known sports like handcycling and wheelchair basketball, adaptive sport continues to evolve, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic, now including virtual options and E-sports. Para-athletes are also being more closely monitored and evaluated pre, peri, and post competition for injury and injury prevention, including in the realm of concussion management, requiring healthcare professionals, coaches, players, and all to gain further knowledge in adaptive sport and the participating para-athletes.
An evidence review of the current barriers and facilitators of disabled people’s engagement with gyms, fitness and leisure centres, opens in a new tab, UK active, (2022). A narrative review presents available evidence under the three Everyone Can agenda themes: ‘information and communication’; ‘facilities and the environment’; ‘customer service and the workforce’. The evidence suggests key improvements that can be implemented to support and provide encouragement for disabled people to participate in activity in safe, welcoming and inclusive gyms, fitness and leisure centres. Key findings include increasing knowledge and awareness of disability across the workforce and all users, ensure accessible facilities both inside and outside including the equipment and activity delivery, communicating in a consistent manner, and creating a positive experience, having disabled role models and changing perceptions. This review highlights the need for continued improvement to ensure disabled people can participate in physical activity in gyms, fitness and leisure centres.
"How can we make it work for you?" Enabling sporting assemblages for disabled young people, opens in a new tab, Carroll P; Witten K; Duff C, Social Science and Medicine, Volume 288, 113213, (November 2021). Disabled young people have lower levels of participation in community life than nondisabled peers across a number of domains, including sporting activities, with profound implications for health, wellbeing and life course opportunities. Playing sport is a defining feature of identity for many young people in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Participation in sporting activities provides opportunities to develop competencies, to have fun and to compete, while also providing a sense of inclusion and peer group belonging. However, despite policies promoting inclusion of disabled young people in school and club sport, ableist attitudes and practices still function to exclude individuals who do not fit able-bodied norms. Drawing on recent ‘assemblage thinking’ in health and cultural geography, this paper explores the material, social and affective dimensions of ‘enabling’ and ‘disabling’ sporting assemblages, drawing on interviews with 35 disabled young people (12–25 years), parents and key informants. Many reported instances of demoralising exclusion in mainstream sporting activities. Some turned to adaptive sporting codes, designed for inclusion.
Adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) and their perceptions of, and motivation for, physical activity and organised sports, opens in a new tab, Elisabeth Hansen, Helena Nordén, Marie Lund Ohlsson, Sport, Education and Society, (27 August 2021). Individuals with intellectual disability (ID) are less physically active than individuals without ID, and rarely reach the recommended daily level of physical activity (PA). Individuals with ID generally have a higher risk of hypertension and obesity-related cardiovascular diseases than individuals without ID. The aim of this study was to identify perceptions of, and motivation for, PA and sports among adolescents with ID. Twelve Swedish male and female adolescents with ID participated in the study, which comprised one semi-structured interview. The interviews identified three main categories: Activity, Surroundings and Body- and health awareness. Adolescents with ID seemed intrinsic motivated to participate in PA, organised sports and activities in general. Support from significant others, teachers, family and friends and support as well as the feeling of joy are connected to normative beliefs which all seem crucial. The participants were aware of their limitations, but sometimes feel bullied and afraid of being excluded, which relates to their normative beliefs. Participation in PA and organised sports may be positively associated with health, but limitations such as lack of awareness and support from society challenge the perception of ‘fitting in’.
Participation of people living with disabilities in physical activity: a global perspective, opens in a new tab, Prof Kathleen Martin Ginis, Hidde P van der Ploeg, Prof Charlie Foster, The Lancet, Volume 398(10298), pp.443-455, (July 2021). Overall, there is evidence that PLWD can derive some of the physical activity benefits observed in the general population. The relatively small number of adequately powered studies might explain some of the inconsistencies. The reviews also show that the epidemiology of physical activity in PLWD is an under-researched area, in need of more high-quality studies to better estimate the health risks and benefits of physical activity for different populations and to identify the amounts of physical activity that maximise health benefits. For adults, behaviour change techniques—particularly self-monitoring, problem solving, action planning, feedback on outcomes of behaviour, social support, reframing thoughts, identifying barriers, instruction on how to do the behaviour, and information about health consequences—were positively associated with behaviour changes. In a qualitative meta-synthesis, PLWD reported that effective interventions were flexible and adaptable to individual needs, autonomy-supportive, and done in inclusive, non-judgmental environments. Physical activity policies, recommendations, and resources must incorporate the values, needs, and preferences of PLWD, relevant rights holders, and stakeholders. Scientists and policy makers must abide by the philosophy of nothing about us without us to co-produce research, recommendations, policy, and other knowledge products.
‘I’ll always find a perfectly justified reason for not doing it’: challenges for disability sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom, opens in a new tab, Ben Ives, Ben Clayton, Ian Brittain, et.al., Sport in Society, Volume 24(4), pp.588-606, (2021). This study aimed to provide insight into the experiences of and attitudes to sport and physical activity for disabled people. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews with eight facilitators and focus groups with 24 members across three disability support organisations. Using ableism as the primary sensitising concept, our iterative analysis revealed that although all facilitators and disabled people were aware of the physical and mental wellbeing benefits of sport and physical activity, only 2 of the 24 disabled participants met the UK Government guidelines for physical activity. Findings showed that participation was hampered by a number of external and internal barriers, including the cost of transport and activities, ineffective modes of communication and advertisement, preconceived images of sport as competitive and judgemental, and anxieties about sporting abilities. Importantly, this study highlighted that many of these barriers were a pretext for a lack of enjoyment, and makes suggestions for future practice.
Physical activity participation among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, opens in a new tab, Patrick Jachyra, Rebecca Renwick, Barbara Gibson, et al., Autism, Volume 25(3), (September 2020). Adolescents with autism spectrum disorder are less likely to be physically active compared to their age-related peers. Despite the lower levels of physical activity observed among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, it is unknown why they are predominantly inactive. Much of the research so far has focused on understanding how biological aspects influence physical activity participation. But there is little research that has examined how social and cultural components influence their physical activity participation. There is also little research that has sought the perspectives and experiences of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. In this study, 10 adolescent boys with autism spectrum disorder created a digital story, and also participated in two face-to-face interviews. The purpose of the study was to examine how individual, social, and cultural forces influenced physical activity participation. Analysis of the data highlight that bullying, challenges in community programs, and the prioritization of therapeutic interventions limited participation. On the contrary, participants were more likely to be active when physical activity generated meaning, purpose, a sense of identity, and affective pleasures. The findings add new knowledge suggesting that adolescents with autism spectrum disorder are not simply unmotivated. Rather, physical activity participation was shaped by wider social experiences, norms, values, and practices in which they were immersed. The findings suggest a need for directed efforts to create policies and practices which are individualized and reflective of the needs and abilities of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder to promote physical activity participation and potentially enhance physical health and wellbeing.
(Un)imaginable (Para-)athletes: A Discourse Analysis of Athletics Websites in Canada, opens in a new tab, Danielle Peers, Timothy Konoval, Rebecca Marsh Naturkach, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 37(1), pp.112-128, (2020). This Foucauldian discourse analysis engages DePauw’s theory of disability and visibility to examine the construction of para-athletes within the websites of Canada’s “fully integrated” athletics sport system. The authors found that para-athletes remain largely unimaginable within most athletics websites. When present, para-athletes are often only imagined as marginal participants, or marginalized through medical and charitable discourses. The authors offer examples of para-athletes being reimagined primarily as athletes, and some examples where (para-)athletics was reimagined by identifying and removing barriers to full participation. The authors close with some learning points that may enable sport practitioners to change how they discursively construct para-athletes and thus contribute to a less marginalizing and exclusionary sport system.
Managing sport volunteers with a disability: Human resource management implications, opens in a new tab, Pam Kappelides, Jennifer Spoor, Sport Management Review, Volume 22(5), pp.694-707, (November 2019). The authors examine the benefits and barriers to including volunteers with a disability in three Australian sport and recreation organisations, as well as the potential human resource management implications. The authors draw on interviews with sport volunteers with disability, staff from sport organisations, and recipients of services from volunteers with disability conducted in 2016–2017. Researchers have not previously examined these diverse perspectives, but they are important for understanding how to include and support sport volunteers with disability. Analysis of the interviews revealed a wide range of benefits of including volunteers with disability including social acceptance, social inclusion and personal development; but both volunteers and organisations identified numerous barriers to volunteering, including negative attitudes, personal factors, organisational factors and lack of social inclusion. Based on the results of this study, the authors develop recommendations for human resource management practices and policies to support volunteers with a disability in sport and recreation organisations, which are organised around an ability-motivation-opportunity framework. The results suggest that organisations need to create an environment that facilitates open, two-way communication with volunteers with a disability about their needs and wants. There also should be training and education to all volunteers and staff around an inclusive workplace culture.
Baseball 4 All: Providing Inclusive Spaces for Persons with Disabilities, opens in a new tab, George Cunningham, Stacy Warner, Journal of Global Sport Management, Volume 4(4), pp.313-330, (2019). The purpose of this study was to examine the factors that influenced participation in a community program designed to enhance leisure participation among children and young adults with disabilities. The authors grounded their work in a sport development framework and recent work on inclusive and socially just leisure. Participants in the qualitative study included seven coaches from a baseball league designed to deliver sport opportunities for persons with both physical and intellectual disabilities. Results showed that Inclusiveness and Joy were fundamental at the recruitment stage. Organization Failure, which was the dominant theme throughout the data set, emerged at what should have been the retention stage. The authors discuss implications for providing inclusive leisure spaces for persons with disabilities.
Mastery and Belonging or Inspiration Porn and Bullying: Special Populations in Youth Sport, opens in a new tab, Jeffrey Martin, Kinesiology Review, Volume 8(3), pp.195-203, (2019). This paper examines the factors that make up a high-quality youth-sport experience for special-population children. It is important to note that special-population youth are often very similar to nondisabled children (e.g., seeking enjoyment in sport), but they experience different contexts and socialization experiences such as fewer opportunities and more barriers to sport participation. The author first examines positive factors in the youth-sport experience and discusses mastery experiences and the generation of positive affect. He also discusses how sport can promote feelings of belongingness, freedom, and independence. In the second part of the paper he discusses how the youth-sport experience can contribute to a negative experience by examining bullying and teasing, as well as “inspiration porn.” Inspiration porn is a relatively new concept in the disability literature that has not been discussed in a sport context. The author proposes a five-component model that links anecdotal reports of inspiration porn to theory, thus providing a basis for future research on inspiration porn. Throughout the paper he examines research in each area, theories used, important findings, salient take-home points, and future research directions and imbues the paper in a disability social-relational model that asserts that individual, social, environmental, and cultural factors all play a role as proximal and distal influences in the sport experiences of special-population youth.
Participation-performance tension and gender affect recreational sports clubs’ engagement with children and young people with diverse backgrounds and abilities, opens in a new tab, Spaaij R, Lusher D, Jeanes R, et.al., PLoS ONE, 14(4): e0214537, (2019). This mixed methods study investigated how diversity is understood, experienced and managed in junior sport. The study combined in-depth interviews (n = 101), surveys (n = 450) and observations over a three-year period. The results revealed that a focus on performance and competitiveness negatively affected junior sports clubs’ commitment to diversity and inclusive participation. Gender and a range of attitudes about diversity were also strongly related. On average, we found that those who identified as men were more likely to support a pro-performance stance, be homophobic, endorse stricter gender roles, and endorse violence as a natural masculine trait. In addition, those who identified as men were less likely to hold pro-disability attitudes. These findings suggest that the participation-performance tension and gender affect to what extent, and how, sports clubs engage children and young people with diverse backgrounds and abilities.
“The Legacy Element . . . It Just Felt More Woolly”: Exploring the Reasons for the Decline in People With Disabilities’ Sport Participation in England 5 Years After the London 2012 Paralympic Games, opens in a new tab, Christopher Brown, Athanasios (Sakis) Pappous, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Volume 42(5), pp.343-368, (October 2018). This article explores why sports participation of people with disabilities in England has declined since the London 2012 Paralympic Games (LPG). Thirty semistructured interviews were conducted with staff employed in a variety of sports and disability-specific organizations. Our preliminary findings suggest that the decline is a result of a complex interplay between multiple factors. A competency gap and a lack of relevance between Paralympians and the rest of the community of people with disabilities might have limited the impact of the legacy. In addition, an absence of coordinated leveraging of the LPG, and a decline in the media coverage of disability sport in the aftermath of the LPG, might also have dulled the legacy. Finally, our data show that austerity and negative media coverage of people with disabilities deterred some people from participating in sport.
Elements contributing to meaningful participation for children and youth with disabilities: a scoping review, opens in a new tab, Claire Willis, Sonya Girdler, Melanie Thompson, et.al., Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 39(17), pp.1771-1784, (2017). The search identified 9544 articles, of which 20 were included for review. Ten elements contributing to meaningful participation experiences were identified and organised as follows: person-based elements (n = 5; having fun, experiencing success, belonging, experiencing freedom, developing an identity); environment-focused elements (n = 4; authentic friendships, the opportunity to participate, role models, family support) and activity-related elements (n = 1; learning). Elements contributing to meaningful leisure participation are interrelated. This review reveals the substantial contribution that meaningful interactions and relationships have in creating and facilitating positive and engaging experiences. Outcomes of this review may assist professionals in the design of targeted interventions to facilitate leisure participation.
Perceived barriers and facilitators to participation in physical activity for children with disability: a qualitative study, opens in a new tab, Nora Shields, Anneliese Synnot, BMC Pediatrics, (January 2016). Children with disability engage in less physical activity compared to their typically developing peers. The aim of this research was to explore the barriers and facilitators to participation in physical activity for this group. Four themes were identified: (1) similarities and differences, (2) people make the difference, (3) one size does not fit all, and (4) communication and connections. Children with disability were thought to face additional barriers to participation compared to children with typical development including a lack of instructor skills and unwillingness to be inclusive, negative societal attitudes towards disability, and a lack of local opportunities.
Sports participation after rehabilitation: Barriers and facilitators, opens in a new tab, Eva Jaarsma, Rienk Dekker, Jan Geertzen, et.al., Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, Volume 48(1), pp.72-79, (2016). Participants were 1,223 adults (mean age 51.6 years, standard deviation 15.1 years) treated in the Rehabilitation Centre of the University Medical Center Groningen, who completed a questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of a self-constructed questionnaire regarding barriers and facilitators. Fifty-eight percent of the participants were active in sports after their rehabilitation. Younger age and a higher level of education were positively associated with sports participation, whereas using assistive devices and experiencing environmental barriers were negatively associated. Facilitators of sports participation were health, fun and increasing physical strength, and advice from rehabilitation professionals. Rehabilitation professionals should emphasize the health benefits of, and enjoyment from, sports participation for people with physical disabilities. They should repeatedly remind people with physical disabilities to stay/become active after completing their rehabilitation programme. Rehabilitation professionals should also provide information about strategies to reduce environmental barriers to sports participation, which could help people using assistive devices to overcome these barriers.
Impact of Organized Sports on Activity, Participation, and Quality of Life in People With Neurologic Disabilities, opens in a new tab, Sahlin KB; Lexell J, PM&R: the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation, Volume 7(10), pp.1081-1088, (October 2015). In this narrative review, current evidence regarding the impact of organized sports on activity, participation, and quality of life in people with neurologic disabilities of all ages is summarized, and facilitators of and barriers to participation in sports for this population are discussed. The subjects of almost all of the studies were persons with a spinal cord injury. Children and adolescents with a disability who engaged in sports reported self-concept scores close to those of able-bodied athletes, as well as higher levels of physical activity. Adults with a spinal cord injury who engaged in organized sports reported decreased depression and anxiety, increased life satisfaction, and increased opportunity for gainful employment compared with nonathletic persons with disabilities. General facilitators, regardless of age, were fitness, fun, health, competence, and social aspects, whereas overall barriers were lack of or inappropriate medical advice and facilities, decreased self-esteem, poor finances, dependency on others, and views held by others.
Sports participation of individuals with major upper limb deficiency, opens in a new tab, Mihai Bragaru, Rienk Dekker, Pieter Dijkstra, et.al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 49(5), pp.330-334, (February 2015). The aim of this study was to analyse sports participation of individuals with upper limb deficiency (ULD) and associated factors. Individuals with ULD originating from the Netherlands were invited, via their attending physiatrist or prosthetist, to answer a digital or paper questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of 34 items related to personal characteristics, type of deficiency and participation in sports. Of the 175 respondents, 57% participated in sports for at least 60 min/week (athletes). Results of logistic regression analyses indicated that the presence of an additional health problem hindering sports participation (β=-1.31, p<0.001) and a more proximal onset of the limb deficiency (β=0.76, p=0.022) had a negative influence on sports participation. For individuals with an acquired ULD, a medium education level (β=0 0.77, p=0.108) and participation in sports before their amputation (β=1.11, p=0.007) had a positive influence on sports participation. The desire to stay healthy and the pleasure derived from sports participation represented the main reasons for participation in sports according to athletes. The presence of an additional medical problem and a lack of motivation were reasons for non-athletes to not participate in sports. The majority of individuals with ULD participate in sports regularly. The presence of an additional medical problem, as well as the level of ULD, educational level and participation in sports before amputation, was related to participation in sports.
Barriers and facilitators of sports in children with physical disabilities: a mixed-method study, opens in a new tab, Eva Jaarsma, Pieter Dijkstra, Alida de Blécourt, et.al., Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 37(18), pp.1617-1625, (2015). This study explored barriers and facilitators of sports participation of children with physical disabilities from the perspective of the children, their parents and their health professionals. Thirty children and 38 parents completed a questionnaire, and 17 professionals were interviewed in a semi-structured way. Data from the three groups were combined in a mixed-method design, after which the results were triangulated. Mean age (SD) of the children was 14.1 (2.9) years old, 58% were boys. Sixty-seven percent of the children had cerebral palsy and 77% participated in sports after school. Most commonly practiced sports were swimming, cycling and football. Children specifically experienced dependency on others as a barrier, parents did not have enough information about sports facilities, and professionals observed that the family’s attitude had influence on the child’s sports participation. Facilitators were health benefits, fun and social contacts. Sports participation of children with physical disabilities is a complex phenomenon because children, their parents and professionals reported different barriers. Sports participation is more physically challenging for children with severe physical disabilities, as their daily activities already require much energy. However, the psychosocial benefits of sports are applicable to all children with physical disabilities.
Barriers to and facilitators of sports participation for people with physical disabilities: A systematic review, opens in a new tab, Jaarsma E, Dijkstra P, Geertzen J and Dekker R, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sport, Volume 24(6), pp.871-881, (2014). Too few people with physical disabilities regularly participate in sports. Therefore, understanding what presents a barrier to participation, as well as what factors facilitate participation, should be helpful to program planners. This study provides an overview of the literature focusing on barriers to, and facilitators of, sports participation for people with various physical disabilities. The most common barrier was health status (personal factor); and lack of facilities, transportation, accessibility of facilities (environmental factors). Facilitating factors were fun, improved health and social contacts. Experiencing barriers to, and facilitators of, sports participation was dependent on age and type of disability. Regular sports participation was greatest when the selection of the sport was appropriate.
Facilitators and Barriers to Physical Activity as Perceived by Older Adults With Intellectual Disability, opens in a new tab, Marieke van Schijndel-Speet; Heleen M. Evenhuis; Ruud van Wijck; et.al., Intellectual and Development Disabilities, Volume 52(3), pp.175-186, (2014). Older people with intellectual disability (ID) are characterized by low physical activity (PA) levels. PA is important for reducing health risks and maintaining adequate fitness levels for performing activities of daily living. The aim of this study was to explore preferences of older adults with ID for specific physical activities, and to gain insight into facilitators and barriers to engaging into PA. Fourteen in-depth interviews and four focus groups were undertaken, with a total of 40 older adults with mild and moderate ID included in the analysis. In total, 30 codes for facilitators and barriers were identified. Themes concerning facilitators to PA were enjoyment, support from others, social contact and friendship, reward, familiarity, and routine of activities. Themes concerning barriers to PA were health and physiological factors, lack of self-confidence, lack of skills, lack of support, transportation problems, costs, and lack of appropriate PA options and materials. The results of the present study suggest that older adults with ID may benefit from specific PA programs, adapted to their individual needs and limitations. Results can be used for developing feasible health promotion programs for older adults with ID.
Perceived exercise benefits and barriers among power wheelchair soccer players, opens in a new tab, J P Barfield, Laurie A Malone, Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, Volume 50(2), pp.231-238, (April 2013). Lack of exercise is a major risk factor for secondary conditions among persons dependent upon motorized wheelchairs. Power wheelchair soccer is a unique exercise opportunity for this population, and understanding factors that influence exercise decision-making is necessary for clinicians to help those in motorized chairs reduce their secondary risk. Therefore, this study examined differences in perceived benefits and barriers to exercise among power wheelchair soccer players using a mixed-methods analysis. The most common perceived benefit to exercise was "Exercising lets me have contact with friends and persons I enjoy." Post hoc comparisons of quantitative data indicated that persons with muscular dystrophy perceived exercise to be significantly less important than did other disability groups (p < 0.05). "Exercise is hard work for me," "Exercise tires me," and "There are too few places for me to exercise" were the most common perceived barriers. These findings can assist with development of exercise opportunities for power wheelchair users.
Volunteers and Coaches Training Manual, opens in a new tab, WA Disabled Sports Association, (2023). A participant centered approach to sport and recreation means the needs of the individual are put before the needs of the club/school/parents/coach. Participants should feel empowered to be make choices and be involved in their sport and recreation development. WADSA place emphasis on participation and the creation of a fun and safe environment. We highlight the creation of an environment where all participants are valued and encouraged.
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