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Facilities and transport

The in/accessibility of the environment can impact on the ability of individuals to participate in sport or active recreation.

The in/accessibility of the environment, especially facilities and transport, can have a significant impact on individuals' ability to participate in sport or active recreation, whether that is as players, coaches, officials, volunteers, staff, spectators, fans. 2, 11, 15, 21, 31, 34, 44, 46, 65, 80, 81, 82, 134

Transport

For people with disabilities the in/accessibility of transport to venues or events can be a significant challenge and a barrier to participation. 24, 34, 44, 45, 78

  • Data from a survey of Blind Sports Australia members in 2022 found that 94% of people who were vision impaired needed transportation to participate in a sport, with 59% requiring support from family, friends, or a support worker to get to activities. 52% of survey participants preferred to travel by private car, with public transport (41%) and taxi/ride sharing services (37%) the next most popular transport options. 22
  • A feasibility study of a frame running program published in 2022 found that several participants would not have been able to attend the program if transportation wasn’t provided. 46
  • A 2022 study in the UK highlighted that insufficient, or difficult to find, information on available facilities, equipment, and transport options was a barrier to using gyms, fitness, or leisure centres. 32
  • A 2015 report on inclusive and accessible stadia for the UK Government highlighted that the most frequently mentioned barrier when planning to attend an event was venues being difficult to access, with transport and parking problems regularly mentioned. The report concluded that providing information that focuses beyond just the stadium, including travel to and from the venue was needed. 83

Governments and organisations at all levels can help sport be more accessible, for example, by: 3, 52, 56, 78, 83

  • Providing clear and comprehensive information on different ways to get to facilities, programs, or events.
  • Providing transportation to programs or events.
  • Improving the connection of transport to facilities and events.
  • Reducing the cost of transport.

Facilities

When considering the accessibility of facilities, the focus can often be on meeting legislated requirements or building standards (e.g. including lifts and ramps), but this often does not meet the needs of all users. A ‘universal design’ approach focusses on making the built environment usable for everyone, whatever their age, level of ability, cultural background, or other differentiating factors. 84, 85, 86, 134

Several surveys and research reports have highlighted the ways in which even facilities with accessible features can be difficult for people with disability to access, navigate, and enjoy to their full extent.

  • A 2019 study in South Australia investigating inclusion of people with disability in sporting clubs found that while most sporting clubs had a good level of facilities for those with physical disabilities, less than 30% of local clubs were involved with “inclusion” related activities (e.g. Come’N’Try events or teams for people with disability). 61
  • A 2015 report for the UK Government found that when buying tickets, issues included limited numbers of wheelchair places, no seating choice, and difficulty purchasing online. Other issues included moving around the venue, accessing toilets, obtaining refreshments, and a lack of disability awareness from club staff and other spectators. 83
  • Research by VicHealth in 2010 highlighted that access to grounds, facilities, training, transport, and even areas where participants socialised created potential barriers for participants. 2

No one solution is suitable for everyone. Focusing on universal design can help facilities, organisations, governments, and others in the community to increase their awareness of factors that can impact equitable access. This can improve individuals’ ability from sign-up, to getting to and from the venue or event, and as they participate, to fully enjoy sport and active recreation. 2, 11, 18, 21, 31, 35, 47, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 134

Resources and reading

  • Five Ways Paris 2024 Will Be Accessible For All Australian Athletes, opens in a new tab, David Sygall, Paralympics Australia, (30 August 2023). The Paralympic Games is more than an enormous sporting event. It’s a global showcase of diversity and inclusion that challenges Host Cities and nations to reconsider and reimagine the ways they design their environments. Initiatives and designs include: accessible rooms, village mobility, volunteers, uniforms, tourist area upgrades.
  • Draven and Amy didn't always see sport as an option. Now they're helping others realise their dreams, opens in a new tab, Bridget Judd, ABC, (4 March 2023). Almost 20 per cent of Australians live with a disability, but only one in four of those participate in sport — and it's not for a lack of trying. With issues including cost barriers and a lack of facilities, surveys show some 75 per cent of Australians with disability want to take part, but don't always feel like it's an option.
  • Blind Sports Australia releases inaugural sport participation data, opens in a new tab, Blind Sports Australia, (12 October 2022). Findings reveal the motivations and barriers to people participating in sport and show opportunities such as boosting female blind sport participation are a priority. Among several reported barriers to participation, the largest is transport. 94% of people who are vision impaired need transportation to participate in a sport, and the majority (59%) need the support of family, friend, or support worker to get there. Travelling by car is the most popular option (52%), followed by public transport (41%), and taxi services (37%).
  • Planet Fitness to Begin Including Inclusive Fitness Equipment in Its Clubs, opens in a new tab, Club Industry [Canada], (24 September 2021). Planet Fitness Inc., Hampton, New Hampshire, and Paralyzed Veterans of America, National Council on Independent Living and American Council of the Blind (collectively Coalition for Inclusive Fitness) are working together to add accessible exercise equipment in Planet Fitness locations for people with disabilities, the organizations announced this week. "People with disabilities face significant barriers when attempting to access health and wellness activities, and it's clear that health inequity is often due to a lack of access and opportunity,” he said. “Today's commitment is another way we are working to eliminate barriers and enhance people's lives by providing a high-quality fitness experience for everyone."
  • Paralympics haven’t decreased barriers to physical activity for most people with disabilities, opens in a new tab, Kathleen Martin Ginis, Cameron Gee, University of British Columbia, The Conversation, (22 August 2021). In a recent research review, we reported that children, youth and adults with disabilities are up to 62 per cent less likely to meet the World Health Organization’s physical activity guidelines than the general population. This is because people with disabilities face over 200 barriers to doing physical activity, two of the largest being built environments and transportation. For example, most public playgrounds, swimming pools, and outdoor tracks are built in ways that make them inaccessible to wheelchair users.
  • Adapting Sport and Physical Activity for Individuals with IDD: Highlighting a Decade of Inclusion and Outcomes, opens in a new tab, Jordan Deneau, Kelly Carr, Chad Sutherland, et.al., SIRC, (4 October 2020). Adults with intellectual and developmental disability (IDD - including autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay) tend to engage in lower levels of physical activity compared to the typically developing population, and thus experience poor health and physical fitness. Many barriers to physical activity for these individuals, including physiological factors, lack of self-confidence, transportation issues, financial limitations, lack of awareness of options, negative supports from caregivers and decision-makers, and the absence of clear policies for engaging in regular activity in residential and day service programs. Key facilitators to physical activity may include enjoyment, support from others, social contact and friendship, familiarity, and a consistent routine of daily activities.
  • Universal design, opens in a new tab, Sport and Recreation Victoria, (updated 2 May 2017). Universal Design is a design philosophy that ensures that products, buildings, environments and experiences are innately accessible to as many people as possible, regardless of their age, level of ability, cultural background, or any other differentiating factors that contribute to the diversity of our communities. Universal Design can be applied to all fields of design, including but not limited to product design, interactive design, architecture and urban planning.

  • An evidence review of the current barriers and facilitators of disabled people’s engagement with gyms, fitness and leisure centres, opens in a new tab, UK active, (2022). A narrative review presents available evidence under the three Everyone Can agenda themes: ‘information and communication’; ‘facilities and the environment’; ‘customer service and the workforce’. The evidence suggests key improvements that can be implemented to support and provide encouragement for disabled people to participate in activity in safe, welcoming and inclusive gyms, fitness and leisure centres. Key findings include increasing knowledge and awareness of disability across the workforce and all users, ensure accessible facilities both inside and outside including the equipment and activity delivery, communicating in a consistent manner, and creating a positive experience, having disabled role models and changing perceptions. This review highlights the need for continued improvement to ensure disabled people can participate in physical activity in gyms, fitness and leisure centres.
  • How inclusive are SA sport clubs? A study into the attitudes and behaviours of members from South Australian mainstream sporting clubs, opens in a new tab, Katrina Ranford, Inclusive Sport SA, (June 2019). In 2018 Inclusive Sport SA was successful in securing a two-year Information Linkages and Capacity Building Project funded by the National Disability Insurance Agency, with the agenda to increase capability of the sector and grow active participation of people with disability (PWD) in mainstream sporting clubs and associations. A pillar of this project saw the consultation with sport bodies and their members to understand the current landscape with regard to inclusive practices and in particular including people with disability in mainstream sporting clubs. Some key findings include:
    • While most sporting clubs have a good level of facilities for those with physical disabilities, less than 30 percent of local clubs are involved with “inclusion” related activities such as Inclusion Come N Try events or teams for PWD.
  • Spotlight on Disability, opens in a new tab, Sport NZ, (December 2018). This spotlight report focuses on understanding the impact of impairments on participation by highlighting the differences and similarities between disabled and non-disabled people’s participation. One of the key findings is overall, disabled people are less likely to participate weekly in play, active recreation or sport. The gap for young people occurs between ages 5 and 7. Weekly participation is matched between ages 8 and 24. From age 25-plus, disabled adults’ participation is lower than for non-disabled adults. Participation continues to decline with increasing age, in contrast with a relatively stable picture for non-disabled adults up until 75-plus.
    • Disabled people aged between 15 and 24 are more likely to cite lack of motivation, not having the equipment needed to participate, family unable to afford, location of facilities or spaces, no one to be active with and not wanting to fail as barriers to participation.
  • Evidence-Based Strategies for Building Quality Participation in Sport for Children, Youth, and Adults with a Disability, opens in a new tab, Canadian Disability Participation Project, (2018). There are three main categories in which strategies to facilitate the building blocks can be implemented: (1) the physical environment (e.g., accessibility), (2) the program environment (e.g., how sport tasks are designed), and (3) the social environment (e.g., coaches, family, peers, volunteers). While all of these strategies may contribute to the creation of quality experiences in parasport, some of these strategies are also necessary for any form of participation to occur (i.e., access and opportunity to participate). In total, 25 evidence-informed strategies have been linked to one or more of the six building blocks of quality experiences. These strategies are the foundation of a quality experience. This supporting evidence is outlined briefly in the pages that follow.
  • The Inclusive And Accessible Stadia Report, opens in a new tab, UK Office for Disability Issues & Department for Culture, Media and Sport, (2015). Two small-scale surveys were conducted between December 2014 and February 2015 comprising an online survey of disabled spectators and a postal survey of clubs from football, rugby, and cricket. The spectator survey received 945 respondents, asking participants to describe their attitudes towards sporting events and the barriers they have faced to attending. The club survey received responses from 88 different clubs and asked questions regarding the extent to which they cater towards disabled spectators, as well as offering them the opportunity to explain the barriers they face in catering. The report highlights the key issues faced by disabled spectators and makes a list of recommendations that clubs should use as a guide for improving accessibility and inclusivity. It is important for clubs to remember that there are a wide range of impairment types including mobility, mental health, hearing, vision, and memory, with each requiring awareness, understanding and different approaches. It is also important for clubs to understand that civic action can be taken against them if they are not perceived to meet the standards of ‘reasonable adjustment’.
    • When planning attendance, the most frequently mentioned barrier was that venues were difficult to access, with transport and parking problems regularly cited. Most clubs claimed to provide access and facility information in advance, but a suggested improvement would be information that focuses beyond just the stadium, including travel to and from the venue.
    • When buying tickets, issues included limited numbers of wheelchair places, no seating choice and difficulty purchasing online. Clubs should consider making wider adjustments in seating planning, as well as providing accessible online services.
    • With regards to the overall experience, frequently cited issues included moving around the venue, accessing toilets, obtaining refreshments, and a lack of disability awareness from club staff and other spectators. Match day stewards should receive disability awareness/confidence training and adopt a zero-tolerance approach towards negative and abusive behaviour.
  • Overcoming barriers to participation, opens in a new tab, British Blind Sport (2015). Sport and recreational activities can enhance the lives of people with visual impairments by improving their health and increasing social interaction. British Blind Sport conducted a survey to understand how blind and partially sighted people overcome barriers to participation in sport, and to understand the motivations of visually impaired people for taking up sport. Telephone interviews and focus groups were used to collect data. This report identifies a number of motivations as well as barriers. Practical solutions are offered to help visually impaired persons, and organisations providing services to them, overcome the barriers. Case studies are also provided.
  • Understanding barriers to sport participation (2010), Victorian Health Promotion Foundation, VicHealth report (2010). VicHealth has identified specific segments within the community where participation in sport remains problematic, including people with a disability. To encourage greater participation, VicHealth was looking to gain greater understanding of the barriers to participation and ongoing involvement in sport among these target groups. Given the nature of the information sought a qualitative research methodology was proposed, involving in depth interviews with participants in the 2009 Australian Masters Games (AMG) and the preparation of ‘case studies’ for each participant. The structure of the research program involved a two-stage design, with initial face-to-face in depth interviews conducted immediately following the AMG with follow-up telephone interviews. The initial interview looked at participants’ current involvement in and attitudes towards sport and physical activity, the AMG experience, future intentions in relation to regular sporting participation and any potential barriers to involvement. The follow-up interview looked to identify changes in sporting behaviour, whether intentions to participate had come to fruition, and if not what had prevented involvement. Three interviews were undertaken with participants in the disability segment. Some key insights from the initial discussions included:
    • The participants spoken to within the scope of this research included people with both intellectual and physical disabilities. What became obvious are the differences in experience, motivations and aspirations across people with different disabilities. Their previous and current involvement in sport differed markedly as did their intentions in relation to future participation. It will be important that sporting bodies acknowledge the range of expectations and capacities that exist across the disability segment. There is no ‘one size fits all’ solution for this segment of the population.
    • Physical limitations are a major impediment for those with a physical disability. For the people involved in the research, this related specifically to access and mobility capabilities. Access to grounds, facilities, training, transport and even areas where participants socialised created potential barriers. There were further indications that special or modified equipment required for this segment to be involved actively in sports creates yet a further hurdle to participation.

  • Barriers to Physical Activity for Women with Physical Disabilities: A Systematic Review, opens in a new tab, Jurgi Olasagasti-Ibargoien, Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro, Patxi León-Guereño, et al., Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, Volume 8(2), 82, (June 2023). Physical activity is essential for women with physical disabilities. This review aims to identify the barriers they face in practicing sport. A systematic review was conducted using the PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science databases in January 2023, with an update in March 2023. This review identified different barriers, grouped into eight types according to the differentiating factor, thus showing that disable people’s participation in physical activity is directly related to some specific barriers which seem to differ according to their gender. Therefore, the success of participation in physical activities depends not only on the user’s concern, but also on an inclusive social environment.
  • Disability inclusion in beach precincts: beach for all abilities – a community development approach through a social relational model of disability lens, opens in a new tab, Simon Darcy, Hazel Maxwell, Melissa Edwards, et al., Sport Management Review, Volume 36(1), pp.1-23, (2023). In this paper we examine a community development approach to including people with disability in a sport context within beach precincts for a project called Beach for All Abilities. The aim of this research is to investigate innovative and transformative solutions that enable inclusion. The research design used multiple methods and data sources across 30 projects and three geographically diverse precincts. The theoretical framework brought together community development and the social relational model of disability to inform the research. The findings show how the funded organisation working in partnership with not-for-profit, commercial and government programs, facilitated processes and practices enabling greater access and inclusion for people with disability in the beach precincts. These included solutions to constraints in the built, outdoor and natural environments across mobility, vision, hearing, intellectual and mental health disability from low to very high support needs. Yet, the overall program had a major shortcoming in establishing ongoing beach-related activities for people with disability. The paper concludes with implications for longevity, limitations, and future research.
  • Optimising health equity through para sport, opens in a new tab, Kristina Fagher, Stephanie DeLuca, Wayne Derman, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 57(3), pp.131-132, (2023). Barriers to sports participation include poor knowledge of para sport (eg, which sports are available, how to find opportunities or train), lack of social support, poor accessibility to training facilities, lack of equipment and the devaluation of para sport across society. An additional concern is the inequity in financial support for para sport, especially in low-resourced environments. Even in high-income countries, para sport is often underfunded in comparison to elite sport for athletes with no disability, and data have shown that Paralympic athletes do not have the same opportunities as Olympic athletes. This inequity begins early in life given that children with a disability are often excluded from physical education sessions or marginalised within the school sports system. This editorial aims to promote health equity through para sport by highlighting such health disparities for the Sports and Exercise Medicine (SEM) community.
  • Use of Frame Running for Adolescent Athletes With Movement Challenges: Study of Feasibility to Support Health and Participation, opens in a new tab, Theresa Sukal-Moulton, Tara Egan, Larke Johnson, et al., Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 4, (March 2022). Children and adolescents with movement challenges have lower instances of physical activity and longer time spent in sedentary behaviors compared to children with typical development. The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility of a sport-based youth development running program modified for accessibility using a running frame and to evaluate initial evidence for its efficacy on endurance and functional strength. At the time of enrollment, the interest/need for transportation was assessed and athletes were provided or offered a para-transit bus to attend practice. When accessing our program, barriers to attendance included technology difficulties (online sessions), transportation (in person), or competing events (both formats). Those that used the provided transportation (n = 2 in winter and spring and n = 3 in summer) stated they would have been otherwise unable to participate due to limitations in transportation access.
  • Adaptive Sports in Spinal Cord Injury: a Systematic Review, opens in a new tab, Ramsey Rayes, Charlotte Ball, Kenneth Lee, et al., Current Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Reports, Volume 10, pp.145-153, (2022). Adaptive sports (AdS) have been shown to have positive health benefits as well as positive psychosocial benefits. Para-athletes often must overcome a variety of barriers to participation, such as transportation, accessibility, and socioeconomic factors. Facilitators to participation have also been identified, including pre-injury interest in sports, male sex, younger age, and more. In addition to well-known sports like handcycling and wheelchair basketball, adaptive sport continues to evolve, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic, now including virtual options and E-sports. Para-athletes are also being more closely monitored and evaluated pre, peri, and post competition for injury and injury prevention, including in the realm of concussion management, requiring healthcare professionals, coaches, players, and all to gain further knowledge in adaptive sport and the participating para-athletes.
  • Adaptive sports for promoting physical activity in community-dwelling adults with stroke: A feasibility study, opens in a new tab, Pradeepa Nayak, Amreen Mahmood, Senthil Kumaran, et.al., Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, Volume 28, pp.341-347, (October 2021). Despite proven health benefits of regular participation in physical activities (PA), adults with stroke fail to achieve recommended levels of PA. Two focus groups were conducted among the eight experts and a person with stroke to develop adaptive sports. To test the feasibility of these adaptive sports, in a multi methods study eighteen community dwelling adults with stroke were recruited. Participants played adaptive sports twice a week for two months in a community center. Participants pre and post intervention PA levels and QoL were measured. Participants were also interviewed at the end of the program to explore their experiences of participation in adaptive sports. At the end of the program retention rate of the participants was 83.33% and there was a significant improvement in PA levels, while the improvement in QoL was not statistically significant. Participants expressed positive experience with the program. There were no adverse events during or after the participation. Health benefits, fitness, and fun were reported as facilitators, while lack of access to the sporting facility and lack of caregiver support were reported as barriers to participation.
  • Participation of people living with disabilities in physical activity: a global perspective, opens in a new tab, Prof Kathleen Martin Ginis, Hidde P van der Ploeg, Prof Charlie Foster, The Lancet, Volume 398(10298), pp.443-455, (July 2021). Overall, there is evidence that PLWD can derive some of the physical activity benefits observed in the general population. The relatively small number of adequately powered studies might explain some of the inconsistencies. The reviews also show that the epidemiology of physical activity in PLWD is an under-researched area, in need of more high-quality studies to better estimate the health risks and benefits of physical activity for different populations and to identify the amounts of physical activity that maximise health benefits. For adults, behaviour change techniques—particularly self-monitoring, problem solving, action planning, feedback on outcomes of behaviour, social support, reframing thoughts, identifying barriers, instruction on how to do the behaviour, and information about health consequences—were positively associated with behaviour changes. In a qualitative meta-synthesis, PLWD reported that effective interventions were flexible and adaptable to individual needs, autonomy-supportive, and done in inclusive, non-judgmental environments. Physical activity policies, recommendations, and resources must incorporate the values, needs, and preferences of PLWD, relevant rights holders, and stakeholders. Scientists and policy makers must abide by the philosophy of nothing about us without us to co-produce research, recommendations, policy, and other knowledge products.
  • ‘I’ll always find a perfectly justified reason for not doing it’: challenges for disability sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom, opens in a new tab, Ben Ives, Ben Clayton, Ian Brittain, et.al., Sport in Society, Volume 24(4), pp.588-606, (2021). This study aimed to provide insight into the experiences of and attitudes to sport and physical activity for disabled people. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews with eight facilitators and focus groups with 24 members across three disability support organisations. Using ableism as the primary sensitising concept, our iterative analysis revealed that although all facilitators and disabled people were aware of the physical and mental wellbeing benefits of sport and physical activity, only 2 of the 24 disabled participants met the UK Government guidelines for physical activity. Findings showed that participation was hampered by a number of external and internal barriers, including the cost of transport and activities, ineffective modes of communication and advertisement, preconceived images of sport as competitive and judgemental, and anxieties about sporting abilities. Importantly, this study highlighted that many of these barriers were a pretext for a lack of enjoyment and makes suggestions for future practice.
  • Sport participation after the HandbikeBattle: benefits, barriers, facilitators from the event—a follow-up survey, opens in a new tab, Sonja de Groot, Ingrid Kouwijzer, Linda Valent, et.al., Spinal Cord Series and Cases, Volume 6, Article number: 54, (June 2020). Handcyclists who took part in one or more HandbikeBattle events in 2013–2017 were invited to complete a survey in December 2018. Questions were asked on benefits of participating in this event, current sport participation, and experienced barriers and facilitators regarding current sport participation. Respondents (N = 96 (N = 59 with spinal cord injury (SCI) or Spina Bifida (SB)), response rate = 47%) reported benefits from this event regarding their fitness level (90%), personal development (81%), daily life activities (66%), and health (64%). Median current sport participation was 5 h/week (IQR: 3–8). Most frequently indicated personal barriers for sports participation were: lack of time (31%), disability (17%), and pain (15%). Most frequently mentioned environmental barriers were: transportation time to sport accommodation (19%), and lack of peers to do sports with (16%). Most important facilitators were motivation to improve health and/or fitness (92%), fun and/or relaxation (85%). The results for the subgroup with SCI were comparable with the results of the total group.
  • Development and Validation of a Tool for Assessing Barriers to Participation in Team Sports for Women with Physical-Mobility Disabilities, opens in a new tab, Forough Bakhtiary, Mahvash Noorbakhsh, Parivash Noorbakhsh, et.al., Annals of Applied Sport Science, Volume 9(s1), (2020). One of the most important tasks of physical education managers is to remove the barriers to participation in physical activities. Disabled people face more barriers to sports participation than nondisabled people, and women with physical-mobility disabilities experience numerous barriers. The results of the present study resulted in the identification of 10 factors, including individual, structural, psychological, managerial, media support, the role of coach, economic, psychological factors related to pitiful and disrespectful attitudes, supportive public social and cultural-religious factors. The personal conditions of the disabled people affect their sport participation. Physical problems, lack of family support for the disabled family member, lack of understanding of the usefulness of sports activities, lack of knowledge of how to participate in sports, inability to leave home due to inappropriate place of residence, and lack of a companion and teammate are considered as individual barriers for disabled women.
  • Physical activity levels of adults with various physical disabilities, opens in a new tab, Ellen de Hollander, Karin Proper, Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 10, pp.370-376, (June 2018). This study examined the physical activity (PA) levels of people with specific disabilities, using health care registration data. Data of 321,656 adults (83%) from the Dutch Public Health Monitor 2012 were used to assess adherence to the World Health Organization (WHO) PA guidelines (%) and the time (min/week) spent on moderate-to-vigorous-intensity and vigorous-intensity PA. Although there are organisations that provide adaptive sports specifically for people with physical disabilities, this population may still experience barriers to exercise, or there may be a lack of such facilities in their neighbourhood. Previous studies have shown that for instance shame, pain, inadequate transportation, inaccessible accommodations, inappropriate sports offer without suitable guidance may pose barriers. Regardless of self-reported activity limitations, adults with objectively measured disabilities, especially those with physical disabilities, had lower PA levels compared to adults without physical and sensory disabilities.
  • Functional and Environmental Factors Are Associated With Sustained Participation in Adaptive Sports, opens in a new tab, Blauwet CA; Yang HY; Cruz SA; et.al., PM&R: the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation, Volume 9(7), pp.668-675, (July 2017). To determine the demographic, environmental, disability-related, and functional factors associated with sustained participation in a community-based adaptive sports program. Participants were described as “sustainers” if they attended ≥2 sessions, or as “nonsustainers” if they attended 0 or 1 session. We examined the associations between sustained participation and demographic, environmental, disability-related, and functional factors in bivariate and multivariable analyses. Of the 134 participants, 78 (58%) were sustainers and 56 (42%) were nonsustainers. Sustained participation in community-based adaptive sports is associated with living closer to the program site and the presence of a moderate level of functional impairment. These findings suggest that programs might consider increasing the number of satellite sites and expanding offerings for individuals with mild or more significant mobility-related disabilities to effectively increase program participation.
  • A systematic review of review articles addressing factors related to physical activity participation among children and adults with physical disabilities, opens in a new tab, Kathleen Martin Ginis, Jasmin Ma, Amy Latimer-Cheung, et.al., Health Psychology Review, Volume 10(4), pp.478-494, (June 2016). In this systematic review, over 200 factors were extracted from 22 review articles addressing barriers and facilitators to LTPA in children and adults with physical disabilities. Factors were grouped according to common themes, classified into five levels of a social ecological model, and coded according to whether they could be affected by the health-care and/or recreation sectors. Findings are discussed with regard to key factors to target in LTPA-enhancing interventions, relevant theories and models in which to frame interventions, the levels at which the interventions can be implemented, and intervention priorities. The synthesis provides a blueprint and a catalyst for researchers and practitioners to shift focus from conducting studies that merely describe LTPA barriers and facilitators, to developing and delivering strategies to increase LTPA among persons with physical disabilities.
  • Sports participation after rehabilitation: Barriers and facilitators, opens in a new tab, Eva Jaarsma, Rienk Dekker, Jan Geertzen, et.al., Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, Volume 48(1), pp.72-79, (2016). Participants were 1,223 adults (mean age 51.6 years, standard deviation 15.1 years) treated in the Rehabilitation Centre of the University Medical Center Groningen, who completed a questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of a self-constructed questionnaire regarding barriers and facilitators. Fifty-eight percent of the participants were active in sports after their rehabilitation. Younger age and a higher level of education were positively associated with sports participation, whereas using assistive devices and experiencing environmental barriers were negatively associated. Facilitators of sports participation were health, fun and increasing physical strength, and advice from rehabilitation professionals. Rehabilitation professionals should emphasize the health benefits of, and enjoyment from, sports participation for people with physical disabilities. They should repeatedly remind people with physical disabilities to stay/become active after completing their rehabilitation programme. Rehabilitation professionals should also provide information about strategies to reduce environmental barriers to sports participation, which could help people using assistive devices to overcome these barriers.
  • Impact of Organized Sports on Activity, Participation, and Quality of Life in People With Neurologic Disabilities, opens in a new tab, Sahlin KB; Lexell J, PM&R: the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation, Volume 7(10), pp.1081-1088, (October 2015). In this narrative review, current evidence regarding the impact of organized sports on activity, participation, and quality of life in people with neurologic disabilities of all ages is summarized, and facilitators of and barriers to participation in sports for this population are discussed. The subjects of almost all of the studies were persons with a spinal cord injury. Children and adolescents with a disability who engaged in sports reported self-concept scores close to those of able-bodied athletes, as well as higher levels of physical activity. Adults with a spinal cord injury who engaged in organized sports reported decreased depression and anxiety, increased life satisfaction, and increased opportunity for gainful employment compared with nonathletic persons with disabilities. General facilitators, regardless of age, were fitness, fun, health, competence, and social aspects, whereas overall barriers were lack of or inappropriate medical advice and facilities, decreased self-esteem, poor finances, dependency on others, and views held by others.
  • Barriers and facilitators of sports in children with physical disabilities: a mixed-method study, opens in a new tab, Eva Jaarsma, Pieter Dijkstra, Alida de Blécourt, et.al., Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 37(18), pp.1617-1625, (2015). This study explored barriers and facilitators of sports participation of children with physical disabilities from the perspective of the children, their parents and their health professionals. Thirty children and 38 parents completed a questionnaire, and 17 professionals were interviewed in a semi-structured way. Data from the three groups were combined in a mixed-method design, after which the results were triangulated. Mean age (SD) of the children was 14.1 (2.9) years old, 58% were boys. Sixty-seven percent of the children had cerebral palsy and 77% participated in sports after school. Most commonly practiced sports were swimming, cycling and football. Children specifically experienced dependency on others as a barrier, parents did not have enough information about sports facilities, and professionals observed that the family’s attitude had influence on the child’s sports participation. Facilitators were health benefits, fun and social contacts. Sports participation of children with physical disabilities is a complex phenomenon because children, their parents and professionals reported different barriers. Sports participation is more physically challenging for children with severe physical disabilities, as their daily activities already require much energy. However, the psychosocial benefits of sports are applicable to all children with physical disabilities.
  • Barriers to and facilitators of sports participation for people with physical disabilities: A systematic review, opens in a new tab, Jaarsma E, Dijkstra P, Geertzen J and Dekker R, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sport, Volume 24(6), pp.871-881, (2014). Too few people with physical disabilities regularly participate in sports. Therefore, understanding what presents a barrier to participation, as well as what factors facilitate participation, should be helpful to program planners. This study provides an overview of the literature focusing on barriers to, and facilitators of, sports participation for people with various physical disabilities. The most common barrier was health status (personal factor); and lack of facilities, transportation, accessibility of facilities (environmental factors). Facilitating factors were fun, improved health and social contacts. Experiencing barriers to, and facilitators of, sports participation was dependent on age and type of disability. Regular sports participation was greatest when the selection of the sport was appropriate.
  • Facilitators and Barriers to Physical Activity as Perceived by Older Adults With Intellectual Disability, opens in a new tab, Marieke van Schijndel-Speet; Heleen M. Evenhuis; Ruud van Wijck; et.al., Intellectual and Development Disabilities, Volume 52(3), pp.175-186, (2014). Older people with intellectual disability (ID) are characterized by low physical activity (PA) levels. PA is important for reducing health risks and maintaining adequate fitness levels for performing activities of daily living. The aim of this study was to explore preferences of older adults with ID for specific physical activities, and to gain insight into facilitators and barriers to engaging into PA. Fourteen in-depth interviews and four focus groups were undertaken, with a total of 40 older adults with mild and moderate ID included in the analysis. In total, 30 codes for facilitators and barriers were identified. Themes concerning facilitators to PA were enjoyment, support from others, social contact and friendship, reward, familiarity, and routine of activities. Themes concerning barriers to PA were health and physiological factors, lack of self-confidence, lack of skills, lack of support, transportation problems, costs, and lack of appropriate PA options and materials. The results of the present study suggest that older adults with ID may benefit from specific PA programs, adapted to their individual needs and limitations. Results can be used for developing feasible health promotion programs for older adults with ID.
  • The use of public sports facilities by the disabled in England, opens in a new tab, Kung S and Taylor P, Sport Management Review, Volume 17(1), pp.8-22, (2014). This study examined usage patterns of sports facilities by persons with a disability. It investigated whether there were statistical differences between the disabled sports participants and the non-disabled sports participants in terms of: (1) social demographics; (2) patterns of participation; (3) travel; (4) sports activities, and; (5) customer satisfaction. The data collected through the National Benchmarking Service, for 458 sports centres from 2005 to 2011. Swimming, using fitness equipment and fitness related activities were the top three preferences among persons with disability. They were more likely to participate in organised activities than non-disabled participants. The disabled were also more likely than the non-disabled to travel to venues by public transport and experienced longer travel time. Measures that can be taken to increase sports participation by the disabled include competent support at sports centres, promotions through discount schemes or leisure cards, and free transportation to sport centres in catchment areas where high proportions of disabled persons reside.
  • Managing disability sport: from athletes with disabilities to inclusive organisational perspectives, opens in a new tab, Misener L, Sport Management Review, Volume 17(1), pp.1-7, (2014). What has become evident is that managing disability sport also has implications for managing sport generally. People with disability are part of the sporting family and need to be considered across all organisational aspects, not just a historical focus on disability. While diversity management in sport more broadly has championed the inclusion of gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, age, and religious issues across the sporting family, this has not been the case with people with disability. Organisations need to consider people with a disability as employees, volunteers, coaches, and as members or spectators depending on the sporting endeavour. This article contains a collection of papers focusing on management issues that centre on constraints to sport participation, supply side attributes, participant behaviours, consumption of disability sport, policy implementation, and sponsor congruence.
  • Perceived exercise benefits and barriers among power wheelchair soccer players, opens in a new tab, J P Barfield, Laurie A Malone, Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, Volume 50(2), pp.231-238, (April 2013). Lack of exercise is a major risk factor for secondary conditions among persons dependent upon motorized wheelchairs. Power wheelchair soccer is a unique exercise opportunity for this population, and understanding factors that influence exercise decision-making is necessary for clinicians to help those in motorized chairs reduce their secondary risk. Therefore, this study examined differences in perceived benefits and barriers to exercise among power wheelchair soccer players using a mixed-methods analysis. The most common perceived benefit to exercise was "Exercising lets me have contact with friends and persons I enjoy." Post hoc comparisons of quantitative data indicated that persons with muscular dystrophy perceived exercise to be significantly less important than did other disability groups (p < 0.05). "Exercise is hard work for me," "Exercise tires me," and "There are too few places for me to exercise" were the most common perceived barriers. These findings can assist with development of exercise opportunities for power wheelchair users.

  • A Universal Design Guide for creating Inclusive Sport in Australia, opens in a new tab, Paralympics Australia, (2024). This Guide can act as a valuable reference for sports representative bodies adopting inclusive practices, as well as sports clubs and venues that want to get started on the journey. It addresses structural, process and attitudinal barriers to inclusivity and universal design and comprises: Definitions of accessibility, inclusivity and universal design; How to adopt an inclusive mindset and language; Motivating case studies; Focus activities for universal design; Practical guides for: hosting a universal design kick-off meeting, developing inclusive strategy, producing accessible documentation, and designing accessible inclusive digital experiences. A ‘living document’, through user testing, the guide will be refined and updated as Paralympics Australia builds its presence and activity to make Australian sport accessible and inclusive.
  • Quality Participation on Playgrounds Blueprint, opens in a new tab, Canadian Disability Participation Project, (May 2023). Adapted from the 'Blueprint for Building Quality Participation in Sport for Children, Youth, and Adults with a Disability' this resource presents 20 evidence-informed strategies for building quality participation on playgrounds for children with disabilities.
  • Volunteers and Coaches Training Manual, opens in a new tab, WA Disabled Sports Association, (2023). A participant centered approach to sport and recreation means the needs of the individual are put before the needs of the club/school/parents/coach. Participants should feel empowered to be make choices and be involved in their sport and recreation development. WADSA place emphasis on participation and the creation of a fun and safe environment. We highlight the creation of an environment where all participants are valued and encouraged.
  • Design for Everyone Guide, opens in a new tab, Sport and Recreation Victoria, (2017). A practical resource to assist the planning, design and development of inclusive sport and recreation facilities. The concept of Universal Design is to simplify life for everyone by making the built environment more usable to as many users as possible. It is separate from accessible design as Universal Design is based on the equitable use of a facility and social inclusion and not the measurement of accessible design features and meeting minimum legislative requirements. Applied holistically to a building without an alternative for different groups, Universal Design addresses issues of having a different approach for different users, which not only improves and simplifies the way a facility is used but also eliminates user segregation to maximise participation by users of all abilities.
  • Access for All: Opening Doors, opens in a new tab, Activity Alliance [UK], (2015). Activity Alliance worked with Access and Inclusive Design Consultant, Jean Hewitt, to create this guide to support sports clubs to improve physical access for disabled people. This guide is aimed at anybody involved in running or working in a sports club. You could be a volunteer, a coach, a club member, or supporter. It is not a detailed technical guide, but intended as a good starting point. The resource will take you through the main areas of physical access and signpost you to sources of further information and support.

Access to resources Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar, opens in a new tab.

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