Impact
Non-fatal drowning, hospitalisation, economic impact, and emotional consequences.
- Beyond drowning: Characteristics, trends, the impact of exposure on unintentional non-drowning coastal fatalities between 2012 and 22,, opens in a new tab Sean Kelly, Shane Daw, Jasmin C. Lawes, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, Volume 48(3), (June 2024). Drowning has been the focus of coastal safety, but a notable proportion of coastal mortality is due to other causes of death. This study describes that burden and quantifies the impact of exposure on Australian unintentional coastal fatalities not due to drowning. Cardiac conditions were the primary causal factor, involved in 52% of deaths. Higher fatality rates were seen among men and for incidents occurring in rural and remote areas. Fatality rates were disproportionately high among young adults when compared to all-cause mortality. Men, young adults, and those living in/visiting regional and remote areas represent high-risk populations. Proximity to emergency services and extended response times represent major determinants of NDCF.
- A preliminary study investigating the neglected domain of mental health in Australian lifesavers and lifeguards,, opens in a new tab Samantha Fien, Jasmin C. Lawes, Jessica Ledger, et al., BMC Public Health, Volume 23, Article 1036, (May 2023).
- Surf lifesavers and lifeguards have provided essential education, preventative, and rescue services to the Australian community for over 110 years. In this first responder role, surf lifesavers and lifeguards are inadvertently exposed to high risk and trauma related experiences, which may negatively impact mental well-being. To date however, there has been limited research into the mental health of surf lifesavers and lifeguards, and no studies at all on the mental health of adolescent surf lifesavers. The preliminary study aimed to measure the exposure of potentially traumatic events (PTEs), post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), self-efficacy, social support, and attitudes towards mental health problems in Surf Life Saving (SLS) members. An anonymous, online survey was developed (adolescent and adult versions) and created to measure the domain of mental health in surf lifesavers and lifeguards. Pearson’s correlations investigated relationships between PTEs, PTSS, self-efficacy, social support, attitudes towards mental health problems, age, years as a SLS member, and years patrolling. Spearman’s Rank was used for violations of normality. A total of 57 surf lifesavers/lifeguards aged 13–59 years were included in the final analysis. There was a significant positive relationship between exposure to direct trauma and PTSS, which in turn, were associated with greater negative attitudes towards mental health problems towards the mental health of others, and lower levels of self-efficacy. Male and female adults with PTSS reported lower social support, whereas for adolescent males, a positive relationship between direct trauma and PTSS was observed. This research is the first to explore the mental health of Australian surf lifesavers and lifeguards. The results highlight the potential risks to mental health and well-being associated with this first responder role. More research to protect the vulnerability of this population is warranted.
- Forgotten first responders: Australian surf lifesavers and lifeguards,, opens in a new tab Samantha Fien, Jasmin C Lawes, Ian de Terte, et al., Emergency Medicine Australasia, Volume 33(3), pp.572-574, (June 2021). First responders often face traumatic and emotionally-taxing incidents in their role. Understanding their mental health and coping capacity is important for wellbeing and continued service delivery. Surf lifesavers and lifeguards are an under researched yet a vital part of the first responder workforce. The recent Senate Report on first responders explored mental health in the leading emergency services personnel in Australia and found a high incidence of mental health difficulties in those who worked or volunteered as emergency responders. However, a significant literature gap exists regarding mental health of surf lifesavers and lifeguards in both the international and Australian context. Here we propose a strategy to address this gap, at the individual, organisational and community level.
- Non-Fatal Drowning in Australia, Part 2: Impact of non-fatal drowning,, opens in a new tab Mahony, A, Pidgeon, S., Royal Life Saving Society Australia, (2021). In addition to hospitalisation figures in Australia over a 15-year period, this study examines the mean length of hospital stay, number of patient days, time in an Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and the number of hours of Continuous Ventilatory Support (CVS) received over a 4- or 5-year period.
- Calculating the economic burden of fatal drowning in Australia,, opens in a new tab Paul Barnsley, Amy Peden, Justin Scarr, Journal of Safety Research, Volume 67, pp.57-63, (2018). Aquatic activities provide physical and social benefits, while the risk of drowning generates countervailing social costs. Drawing on estimates of fatal drowning gathered by Royal Life Saving Society – Australia, this paper outlines a method for estimating the economic burden attributable to fatal drowning. The study covers 4285 cases of unintentional fatal drowning over 15 years. Based on this sample and estimates for the Value of a Statistical Life Year (VSLY) ($203,000), the economic burden of fatal drowning for Australia over this 14 year period was $18.63 billion in 2017 Australian dollars, averaging $1.24 billion annually.
- Understanding the full burden of drowning: a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of fatal and non-fatal drowning in Australia,, opens in a new tab Peden AE, Mahony AJ, Barnsley PD, BMJ Open, Volume 8, (2018). The epidemiology of fatal drowning is increasingly understood. By contrast, there is relatively little population-level research on non-fatal drowning. This study compares data on fatal and non-fatal drowning in Australia, identifying differences in outcomes to guide identification of the best practice in minimising the lethality of exposure to drowning. 2272 fatalities and 6158 hospital separations occurred during the study period, a ratio of 1:2.71. Children 0–4 years (1:7.63) and swimming pools (1:4.35) recorded high fatal to non-fatal ratios, whereas drownings among people aged 65–74 years (1:0.92), 75+ years (1:0.87) and incidents in natural waterways (1:0.94) were more likely to be fatal. This study highlights the extent of the drowning burden when non-fatal incidents are considered, although coding limitations remain. Documenting the full burden of drowning is vital to ensuring that the issue is fully understood and its prevention adequately resourced. Further research examining the severity of non-fatal drowning cases requiring hospitalisation and tracking outcomes of those discharged will provide a more complete picture.
- A 13-year national study of non-fatal drowning in Australia: Data challenges, hidden impacts and social costs,, opens in a new tab Royal Life Saving Society Australia, (2017). The total cost of non-fatal drowning over the study period was $2.45 billion, an average $188 million per year. These costs depend heavily on the average age of victims as well as the frequency of non-fatal drowning incidents, with younger victims and those activities where victims tend to be younger on average, generating a disproportionate share of the overall burden. Victims under 25 years of age generated 78% of the total burden of non-fatal drowning. The rising average age of victims over the study period leads to a slight fall in the average cost per incident between 2002/03 and 2014/15, partially offsetting a rise in the overall frequency of non-fatal drowning. On average, the per-incident cost of non-fatal drowning is much lower than the cost of a fatal drowning, but non-fatal drowning incidents where the victim experiences long term effects (estimated at 5% of all incidents) are more costly than fatalities and account for 88% of the total costs of non-fatal drowning.
- Reducing the burden of non-fatal drowning: Symposium Declaration,, opens in a new tab Australian Water Safety Council, (2017). Non-fatal drowning is often a hidden issue, overshadowed by a focus on fatal drowning and rescues - The individuals and their families have unique needs and are often either unable to find the support they require, or are unwilling to ask for help due to the grief and guilt associated with their experience. A study undertaken at the Children’s Hospital at Westmead found that 22% of children (out of 23 participants) who showed no obvious neurological impairment when discharged from hospital after a non-fatal drowning, showed behavioural problems, learning difficulties or poor fine motor skills within five years post the non-fatal drowning incident. Although a small sample size, this is double the prevalence estimated in the general child (under 12 years) population for behavioural and learning difficulties (10%). The economic costs of non-fatal drowning are approximately $188 million per year. While the average cost per incident is low, the 5% of incidents leading to long-term disability generate 88% of the total cost burden of non-fatal drowning, with each incident leading to average costs of $6.91 million. The impacts on individuals, families and communities are in many cases immeasurable.
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