Coaching
Participants who receive quality coaching generally have higher long-term participation rates than those who aren't coached.
Coaches at all levels exert great influence on their players/athletes and can play a significant role in maintaining participation in sport. 11, 18, 25, 45, 46, 47, 48
Coaches can help participants, especially children, develop physical and social skills. Participants who receive quality coaching tend to have higher long-term participation rates than participants who aren't coached. 45, 47, 48
In contrast, negative coaching experiences can contribute to participants leaving a sport or reducing participation. 11, 48
Research for the National Rugby League in 2017 found that junior players highly rated coaches’ knowledge of the game and the safety of training sessions. Player selection and general fairness displayed by the coach were most likely to be rated as unsatisfactory. 25, 31
Coaches’ philosophy, methods, and competence can shape attitudes, motivation, and impact upon participants wellbeing. Quality coaching not only delivers optimal physical, technical, and tactical aspects of a sport, it provides experiences that hook participants into a sport by providing appropriate contexts, activities, encouragement, and motivation in a safe and fun environment. 8, 35, 44, 45, 48, 49, 50
Resources and reading
- Coaching children vs. coaching adults: Does the coach need to change? Part 1, Australian Sports Commission, (2024). Why coaches need to recognise the differences between adults and children and how to adapt their training to suit their needs and motivations.
- Coaching children vs. coaching adults: Does the coach need to change? Part 2, Australian Sports Commission, (2024). Why coaches need to recognise the differences between adults and children and how to adapt their training to suit their needs and motivations
- Routledge Handbook of Coaching Children in Sport, opens in a new tab, Martin Toms, Ruth Jeanes (eds.), Routledge, (2023). Provides a comprehensive and extensive range of critical reflections of key areas impacting on children’s sport and coaching up to the age of 16. Key topics include Learning and Child Development, Protecting Young Athletes, Talent Identification and Development and Inclusive Coaching and some considerations for coaches for professional learning through to coaching in particular contexts.
- Girls Active National Reports 2024, opens in a new tab, Youth Sports Trust, (2024). The Youth Sport Trust have been conducting a Girls Active Survey since 2016, finding out what the barriers, motivations and perceptions are for UK girls in PE, physical activity and sport, both in and outside of school and how these differ to boys. In 2024 over 15,000 young people took part in the survey. In realation to teaching/coaching when asked who they would prefer to teach their PE and sport at school, secondary school girls were most likely to say A female teacher/coach, followed by I don’t mind, and A male teacher/coach. When including all ages/grades girls either 'didn't mind' (53%), would prefer a female teacher/coach (43%), or would prefer a male teacher or coach (4%). 63% of boys didn't mind if their PE/sport teacher was male or female, although 32% would prefer a male teacher, and 4% a female teacher.
- 'The Impact of Coaching on Participants 2017, opens in a new tab', UK Coaching, (November 2017). This report presents the results from a four-year study examining the experience of both adult and young participants who were either coached or not coached. Additional questions were added in the final year to focus on the reasons why people stop taking part in sport or physical activity. Participants were grouped into several market segments: active committed; active at risk; active returners; and inactive dropped out. Overall, the results indicate that both adults and young people who are being coached are more likely to continue being committed to sport and physical activity, less likely to stop participating, and more likely to return to activity if they do stop (i.e. due to injury). However, the responses also demonstrate that people being coached are just as likely as those not being formally coached to think about stopping. Positive coach/participant relationships, and matching delivery to individual needs are important aspects for maintaining participation for all age groups.
- National Junior Rugby League Players' Experiences: Players’ experiences and the impact on retention rates, opens in a new tab, Dr Wayne Usher, Griffith University for the National Rugby League (NRL), (2017). A mixed method (quantitative and qualitative) approach was employed to investigate possible associations between all four experiences. The survey provided Junior players, who returned to play in the 2017 RL season, with the opportunity to record and voice their ‘lived experience’. Findings from this study provide a comprehensive ‘snapshot’ of the current Junior RL landscape, presenting useful findings pertaining to players’ experiences (2017). A summary of results and potential recommendations are presented throughout this report, with the aim to draw attention to some of the more important patterns of associations between the four measurable experiences (coaching, player, club and socialisation). On the basis of these findings, it is recommended that a number of current processes and practices, undertaken by the NRL, require modification or prioritising, to assist with minimising and/or eliminating the various factors that have been identified by Junior participants as points of affect.
- Investigating motives that influence Australia’s Rugby League retention rates: Players’ experiences and the impact on retention rates, opens in a new tab, Dr Wayne Usher, Griffith University for the National Rugby League (NRL), (2017). This report presents findings from individual groups (Junior and Senior), combined (Junior and Senior) and individual governing bodies (i.e., NSWRL, NSWCRL, QRL and Affiliated States). Such a thorough approach has provided a burden of evidence, concerning elements of the RL culture, which impact and influence player retention motivations. It is also important to note, that whilst there are a number of immediate strategies RL can commence with to address retention motivations, there are certain facets of the game and data findings that will be out of the control and reach of the sport (i.e., individual player transitional life phases— relocations, heightened and fluctuating study, work and family commitments). Subsequently, from the findings, this report provides eleven recommendations that the NRL may give consideration to, in an attempt to address the identified areas of concern.
- When asked to use one of 10 categories to indicate why they did not return to RL in 2017, junior participants were most likely to report a negative experience (25%), injury, fear of injury or illness (15%), losing interest in playing (13%) joining another sporting club (11%) or other commitments (10.4%). Beyond this, participants reported other reasons, evenly distributed, across relocating and not being able to play with friends. (p.33)
- Junior players agreed most strongly around ‘player selection was not fair’, felt that their ‘contribution was not valued’ and ‘low levels of fun’. These were the top three negative experiences which influenced their decision to not return to play in 2017. (p.37)
- Research summary 13: Increasing Young People’s Motivation to Play through Coaching, opens in a new tab, sports coach UK, (2014). Fun is a key motivator for young people who play sport, but they are also looking for sporting experiences that connect with their social lives. New research illustrates how fun and positive peer relationships are interrelated, and essential in ensuring young people continue to participate in sport. – if young people’s relationships are positive, they are more likely to have fun playing sport and therefore be more motivated to continue playing. If the relationships they develop are not positive, they are more likely to drop out. However, the theory is more complex than simply suggesting that young people who play sport together need to get along. Most notably, their relationships change as they get older. At the younger age of around eight, they will rely on coaches and parents for feedback on their sporting ability. However, from age 10 onwards, they are more likely to compare themselves to their peers. The results of these peer comparisons will determine how they perceive their own ability and competence, which either reinforces or destroys their motivation to continue playing.
- Caring coaching climates emerge as key factor in promoting high school athletes’ well-being and motivation, complimented by a task-involving climate, opens in a new tab, Candace M. Hogue, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, (5 December 2024). This investigation assessed whether the perceived motivational climate (caring, task-involving, and ego-involving climates; CCs, TICs, EICs) on high school teams are related to athlete well-being and motivation. Athletes (N = 181; M = 15.71 y.o.) completed a questionnaire mid-season. For both the girls’ and boys’ teams, CCs were negatively linked to shame, psychosocial stress, and depression while TICs were positively linked to state coping appraisals and motivation to continue, after controlling for the nested structure of the data. For athletes on girls’ teams (n = 129), CCs were negatively associated with state stress appraisals and positively associated with feeling that their coach cares about what happens to them, state coping, enjoyment, and motivation to continue. For girls’ teams, TICs were positively associated with enjoyment and negatively associated with state stress and life stress. For boys’ teams, CCs were negatively associated with life stress, while EICs were negatively linked to feeling that their coach cares about what happens to them. These results suggest coaches should create CCs and TICs to elicit adaptive motivational responses and foster greater well-being in youth. More than a third (36.5%) of boys’ teams athletes and 24.0% on girls’ teams reported to some extent that their coach is one of the only adults who cares about them, underscoring the critical role coaches can play during adolescence.
- Understanding enjoyment within the context of the children-to-youth sport transition in Norwegian soccer: A mixed methods study, opens in a new tab, Thomas Mangor Jørgensen, Siv Gjesdal, Frank Eirik Abrahamsen, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 75, (November 2024). The purpose of this mixed methods study was to investigate youth soccer players’ enjoyment within the children-to-youth sport transition context. The quantitative phase consisted of 214 soccer players (28.2 % girls, Mage = 12.56 years) who completed a questionnaire, and structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. A total of 10 soccer players (6 boys and 4 girls) who had reported different levels of enjoyment were interviewed. The results indicated that expectation of success and the mastery-approach goal had a positive relationship with enjoyment. The qualitative data further revealed that love for the sport, being with friends, and learning and mastery were sources of enjoyment for the players. A key finding was that players experienced increased seriousness in the transition, which may have a negative impact on their enjoyment. In conclusion, coaches should emphasize players’ expectations of success, learning, and intrapersonal mastery, while creating a team culture that values friendship and passion for the sport. These strategies can enhance enjoyment, potentially sustaining youth participation in soccer during the children-to-youth sport transition
- Why sports? Sketching a typology of young people’s reasons for taking part in sports, opens in a new tab, Lars Erik Espedalen, Ørnulf Seippel, Sport in Society, (17 July 2024). We sketch a typology of sport participation reasons grounded in data from 2581 short-answers from youths in organized sports. We develop the typology abductively against theories from philosophy, sociology, and psychology to better capture the full scale of possible participation reasons in organized youth sport. Key empirical findings are, first, that in addition to having fun and being with friends, youths participate to expand their social networks and develop weak social ties into stronger ones. Second, competition and mastery are intertwined. Competitions can function as a measure stick for individual and team skill development. Third, physical and mental health reasons are common participation reasons. Youths appreciate how sport impact their everyday health. Fourth, youths combine reasons for sport participation in diverse ways that have theoretical and practical implications. We end by suggesting two ideal types of how organized sport participation reasons combine—a heavy and light sport appreciation. Authors also listed some surprising themes that emerged in the responses, including:
- One in twenty (5%) youths wrote that their main reason to do sport was to become a professional athlete, making money, being on the national team or becoming a world champion.
- The coach and training sessions (4%) remain underemphasized in previous motive studies but was important for some youths in our data.
- Five percent mentioned that partaking in organized structure, regardless of the sporting content, helped them in their daily life. Having an activity organized for them created a structure and discipline they appreciated.
- Creating optimally safe and enjoyable youth sporting experiences within the United Kingdom, opens in a new tab, Maita G. Furusa, Camilla J. Knight, Thomas D. Love, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 73, (July 2024). The purpose of the current study was to explore perceptions of the process through which an optimally safe and enjoyable sporting experience can be created for young people. Interviews were conducted with 19 young people, six parents, nine coaches, and five individuals in safeguarding roles. The interviews were analysed through open and axial coding, followed by theoretical integration. The resultant theory highlighted that establishing positive relationships between all young people and key individuals in a physically and developmentally safe environment was a fundamental requirement for fostering an optimally safe and enjoyable sporting experience. Achieving this required consideration of factors both in the immediate and broad sporting context. Specifically, support from sports organisations, access to continuing professional development opportunities, and a network of safeguarding experts are required in the broader environment. While within the immediate sporting environment, visibly displayed and appropriately implemented safeguarding policies and procedures; open, honest, and respectful interactions; shared goals and expectations between parents, coaches, and young people, and; trusting and supportive friendships with shared experiences are required.
- Addressing the Needs of Indigenous Children?: Coach Education Programs in Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand, and Australia, opens in a new tab, Andrew Bennie, Jeremy Hapeta, Dan Henhawk, et al., Chapter 33 in 'Routledge Handbook of Coaching Children in Sport', Martin Toms, Ruth Jeanes, (eds.), Routledge, (2022). Canada, Australia, and Aotearoa New Zealand all share histories of devastating acts of colonialism against Indigenous peoples. As a result of this colonial history, and despite profound and enduring cultural strength and resilience, Indigenous children in these countries being produced as being “at risk.” Sport has long been used as a tool to connect with at-risk youth; unsurprisingly, Indigenous children are often the targets of sport-focused interventions that are meant to “improve” areas in which they are deemed as being deficient. Sport coaches, thus, can play key roles in the lives of Indigenous children. Without sufficient training, however, coaches who are meant to play positive roles in Indigenous children's lives can (re)produce a sport environment that enables racism and reinforces neo-colonialism. This chapter examines coach education programs in Canada, Australia, and Aotearoa New Zealand, and the extent to which they provide opportunities for coaches to become familiar with Indigenous approaches to sport and sport pedagogy. This chapter argues that it is crucial for national coaching bodies to use culturally safe approaches to sport coaching to ensure that prospective coaches learn about the strengths and resilience of Indigenous peoples, the impacts and legacies of colonisation, and their role of influence in sport contexts over time and Indigenous children's sport participation.
- Why Children/Youth Drop Out of Sports, opens in a new tab, Peter A. Witt, Tek B. Dangi, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 36(3), (2018). Forty percent of kids played team sports on a regular basis in 2013. Yet, numerous children and youth drop out of sports every year as well. This article explores the reasons why children and youth drop out of sports and offers suggestions for how parents, coaches, and youth development professionals can help to minimize unwarranted and premature dropping out. Three sets of reasons or constraints have been offered for why children and youth drop out of sports. Intrapersonal constraints include lack of enjoyment (not having fun, being bored); low perceptions of physical competence; intrinsic pressures (e.g., stress); and perceptions of negative team dynamics (negative feelings toward team or coach). Interpersonal constraints include parental pressure and loss of feelings of ownership and not having enough time to participate in other age-appropriate activities. Finally, structural constraints include time (for training and travel), injuries, cost, and inadequate facilities. Suggestions for minimizing dropping out of sports and increasing youth engagement include redefining sports goals away from winning toward having fun, balancing parental involvement, encouraging multiple sport participation, enabling children to have autonomy and ownership over game experiences, encouraging rules that give every child a chance to play, decreasing parental pressure about winning, urging parents to avoid living their sports dreams through their children, and beginning sport participation at an appropriate age.
- Enjoyment and Behavioral Intention Predict Organized Youth Sport Participation and Dropout, opens in a new tab, Lauren A. Gardner, Christopher A. Magee, Stewart A. Vella, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 14(11), pp.861–865, (2017). Dropout from organized youth sport has significant adverse health implications. Enjoyment and behavioral intentions have consistently been linked with participation and dropout; however, few studies have investigated these links using a prospective design. This study explored whether enjoyment and intentions to continue predicted dropout behavior at 1-year follow-up. Questionnaires were completed by 327 regular sport participants (mean age = 13.01 y at baseline, 77 males and 250 females). After 1 year, 247 individuals (75.5%) continued participating in their main sport and 26 individuals (8%) dropped out. A hierarchical logistic regression model estimated the probability of dropout. In step 1, the following covariates were included: age, sex, competition level, perceived competence, parental support, coach–athlete relationship, friendship quality, and peer acceptance. In step 2, enjoyment and intentions to continue were included. Step 1 indicated that age, parental support, coach–athlete relationship quality, and peer acceptance were significantly associated with dropout. Step 2 explained further variance in dropout, with both enjoyment and intentions inversely associated with dropout. Peer acceptance was the only covariate to remain significantly associated with dropout in step 2. Conclusions: Findings support the use of enjoyment and behavioral intentions as indicators of sport participation/dropout behavior and may aid the development of interventions aimed at preventing future dropout.
- Social climate profiles in adolescent sports: Associations with enjoyment and intention to continue, opens in a new tab, Gardner L, Magee C, Vella S, Journal of Adolescence, Volume 52, pp.112-123, (2016). This study explored whether adolescent sports participants' perceptions of the social climate fall into distinct profiles, and whether these profiles are related to enjoyment and intention to continue with organised sport. 313 Australian adolescents, mean age 13 years, participated in this study. Four distinct profiles were identified: (1) positive social climate; (2) diminished social climate; (3) positive coach relationship quality; and, (4) positive friendship quality. Participants reporting positive social climate and positive coach relationship quality profiles were most likely to continue in organised sport. The results highlight the value of positive coach-athlete relationships and an overall positive social climate for retaining adolescents in sport programs.
- The Fun Integration Theory: Towards Sustaining Children and Adolescents Sport Participation, opens in a new tab, Amanda Visek, Sara Achrati, Heather Manning, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 12(3), pp.424-433, (2015). Working with youth soccer players (n = 142), coaches (n = 37), and parents (n = 57) identified 11 fun-dimensions (Being a Good Sport, Trying Hard, Positive Coaching, Learning and Improving, Game Time Support, Games, Practices, Team Friendships, Mental Bonuses, Team Rituals, Swag) and 81 specific fun-determinants. The top 10 determinants of fun were Trying your best, When a coach treats players with respect, playing well together as a team, getting playing time, getting along with your teammates, Exercising and being active, working hard, when a coach encourages the team, having a coach who is a positive role model, playing well during a game, Keeping a positive attitude. ‘Competition’ was number 21; ‘winning’ was number 48.
- Correlates of youth sport attrition: A review and future directions, opens in a new tab, Balisha S, Rainhama D, Blancharda C, et.al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 15(4), pp.429-439, (2014). Given the potential benefits of youth sport, this study sought to identify correlates (i.e. factors) of youth sport attrition and evaluate the strength of evidence for each correlate. One hundred forty-one distinct correlates were examined from published literature between 1982 and 2012. Reasons for attrition were identified as being biological, intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy related. Positive coaching relationship was one of the interpersonal correlates. It showed a low negative correlation with attrition (i.e. positive coach relationships kept athletes playing).
- Community Coaching, Australian Sports Commission, (accessed 10 December 2024). Developed in collaboration with the sport sector, the modern approach is about supporting the development, education and training of coaches and empowering them to provide safe, fun and inclusive environments that focus on the needs and motivations of participants. Resources include education, support for sport, conferences, webinars, podcasts, and more.
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